Earthquake

SCE, KIIT University

 Outline of the presentation

 Introduction
 What is earthquake
 Tectonic plates, faults and plate boundaries
 Type of faults
 Elastic rebound theory
 Focus and epicenter
 Seismic waves
 Location of earthquake, size and magnitude
 Ground Response Analysis (GRA)
Introduction

 Damages during earthquakes

 Ground deformation
 Foundation failure of building, dam, bridges
 Ground failure due to liquefaction
 Occurrence of landslides (in hilly area)
» For most of damages, dynamic response
of soils is the governing factor
 What is earthquake?
 The shaking of the earth’s crust caused by a sudden release of strain energy

 Usually associated with faulting or breaking of rocks

 Relative movement of the plates causes stresses to build up on their

boundaries

 Due to movement of the plates, strain energy accumulates in the vicinity of the
boundaries
Tectonic plates, faults and plate boundaries
 Tectonic plates, faults and plate boundaries
• Based on the movement of plates
 Divergent boundaries
 Two plates are moving away from each other
 Converging boundaries
 Two plates are moving towards each other

 Transformation boundaries
 Type of faults
• Type of fault
 Normal fault
 Reverse (Thrust) fault
 Strike-slip fault

Normal fault

Thrust (Reverse) fault

Strike-slip fault
 Elastic rebound theory
• How energy is stored in rock mass ?
 Rocks bend until the strength of the rock is exceeded
 Rupture occurs and the rocks quickly rebound to an undeformed shape
 Energy is released in waves that radiate outward from the fault
 Concept of elastic rebound theory can be used to develop a useful measure of
the size of an earthquake
 Focus and Epicenter
 The point within earth where faulting begins is the focus, or hypocenter

 Point directly above the focus on the surface is the epicenter

 Earthquake recording
 Recording is done by seismograph
 Horizontal and
 Vertical direction
 Seismic waves
• When an earthquake occurs, different types of seismic waves are
produced
 Seismic wave is due to the radiation of energy released during an earthquake
 Two types
» Body wave
• P-wave and S-wave
» Surface wave
• Rayleigh wave
• Love wave

 In bedrock, p-wave velocities are generally 3 to 8 km/sec and s-wave

velocities range from 2 to 5 km/sec
 Surface waves are of a lower frequency than body waves
 Body wave: P-wave and S-wave
• P or primary, compressional, or
longitudinal waves
 Fastest waves
 Travel through solids, liquids,
or gases
 Compressional wave, material
movement is in the same
direction as wave movement
 Body wave: P-wave and S-wave
• S or surface or, secondary or
shear, or transverse waves
 Cause shearing deformations
 Motion of an individual
particle is perpendicular to the
direction of s-wave travel
 Surface wave: Rayleigh wave and Love wave
• Rayleigh wave
 Particle moves the ground up and
down, and side-to-side in the same
direction that the wave is moving

 Most of the shaking felt from an

earthquake is due to the Rayleigh
wave, which can be much larger than
the other waves
 Surface wave: Rayleigh wave and Love wave
• Love wave
 Surface waves result from the
interaction between body waves and
the surface and surficial layers of the
earth
 It's the fastest surface wave and moves
the ground from side-to-side

 Surface waves travel just below or along the ground’s surface

 Slower than body waves; rolling and side-to-side movement
 Especially damaging to buildings
 Location of earthquake, size and magnitude
• Location of earthquake
 The location of an
earthquake is presented in
terms of the location of its
epicentre
 Three seismograph stations
are needed to locate the
epicenter of an earthquake
 Circle where the radius
equals the distance to the
epicenter is drawn
 The intersection of the
circles locates the epicenter
 Location of earthquake, size and magnitude
• Size of earthquake
 Oldest measure of earthquake size is the earthquake intensity
 One of the very important parameters
 Intensity is a qualitative description of the effects of the earthquake at a particular
location
 Earthquake intensities usually obtained from interviews of observers after the event
» Rossi-Forel (RF, 1880) scale of intensity, describe intensities with values
ranging from I to X
» Modified Mercalli intensity (MMI) scale originally developed by the Italian
seismologist Mercalli
» Japanese Meteorological Agency (JMA) has its own intensity scale
» Medvedev-Spoonheuer-Karnik (MSK) scale is used in central and eastern
Europe
Size
 Location of earthquake, size and magnitude
• Magnitude of earthquake
 Earthquake magnitude is a quantitative measure of the size of an earthquake

 Most magnitude scales are based on measured ground motion characteristics

 Local magnitude is based on the trace amplitude of a particular

seismometer
 Surface wave magnitude on the amplitude of Rayleigh waves
 Body wave magnitude on the amplitude of p-waves

 Because these amplitudes tend to reach limiting values, these magnitude scales
may not accurately reflect the size of very large earthquakes

 The moment magnitude, which is not obtained from ground motion

characteristics, is able to describe the size of any earthquake
 Location of earthquake, size and magnitude
• Magnitude of earthquake
 Richter Local Magnitude (In 1935, Charles Richter) (ML)
 Best known magnitude scale, but it is not always the most appropriate scale
for description of earthquake size
 Surface Wave Magnitude (Gutenberg and Richter, 1936) (Ms)
 Worldwide magnitude scale based on the amplitude of Rayleigh waves
 Surface wave magnitude is most commonly used to describe the size of
shallow (less than about 70 km focal depth), distant (farther than about
1000 km) moderate to large earthquakes

 Body Wave Magnitude (Gutenberg, 1945) (Mb)

 worldwide magnitude scale based on the amplitude of the first few cycles of
p-waves which are not strongly influenced by the focal depth
A is the maximum ground displacement in micrometers and ∆ is the epicentral distance
of the seismometer and, T is the period of the p-wave
 Location of earthquake, size and magnitude
• Magnitude of earthquake
 Moment Magnitude
log M o
Mw   10.7
1.5

 It consider seismic moment

M o   AD (dyne.cm)
μ = rupture strength of the material along the fault,
A = rupture area
D
= Average amount of slip
What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?
• Ground Shaking
 Amplitude, duration, and damage increases in poorly consolidated
rocks or soil
What are the Destructive Effects of Earthquakes?
 Ground Response Analysis
• Steps followed for ground response analysis

Ordonez (2011)
 Construction of seismic zone
• Effect of any earthquake on the structure depends
 Soil condition
 frequency
 Geography
 Geology of the region
 Earthquake magnitude
 Structure itself

 IS: 1893 (2002) Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures,

Part 1: General Provisions and Buildings, Bureau of Indian Standards
(BIS)
 IS: 13920 (1993) Ductile detailing of reinforced concrete structures
subjected to seismic forces, Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
PREVENTIVE AND MITIGATION MEASURES

Structural Measures
• Earthquake resistant design of buildings depends upon providing the building with strength,
stiffness and inelastic deformation capacity which are great enough to withstand a given level
of earthquake-generated force.
• This is generally accomplished through the selection of an appropriate structural
configuration and the careful detailing of structural members, such as beams and columns,
and the connections between them.
• There are several different experimental techniques that can be used to test the response of
structures to verify their seismic performance, one of which is the use of an earthquake
shaking table (a shaking table, or simply shake table).

Non-Structural Measures
• Policy decisions about construction of structures with due approval from specified authorities
must be taken.
• The building codes etc. must be suitably formulated/amended and appropriately detailed and
legal implications properly stated.
• Guidelines both for earthquake-resistant constructions as well as for retrofitting must be
formulated with specifications about site selection, foundation, construction, materials and
workmanship making involvement of specialist architects, trained engineer and masons
mandatory
Seismic Retrofitting
• Seismic retrofitting is the modification of existing structures to make them
more resistant to seismic activity, ground motion, or soil failure due to
earthquakes.
• With better understanding of seismic demand on structures and with our
recent experiences with large earthquakes near urban centers, the need of
seismic retrofitting is well acknowledged.

Pre-Disaster Preventive Measures

Long-term measures

Medium-term measures
Long-term measures

• Re-framing buildings codes, guidelines, manuals and byelaws and their strict
implementation. Tougher legislation for highly seismic areas.
• Incorporating earthquake resistant features in all buildings at high-risk areas.
• Making all public utilities like water supply systems, communication
networks, electricity lines etc. earthquake-proof. Creating alternative
arrangements to reduce damages to infrastructure facilities.
• Constructing earthquake-resistant community buildings and buildings (used
to gather large groups during or after an earthquake) like schools,
dharamshalas, hospitals, prayer halls, etc., especially in seismic zones of
moderate to higher intensities.
• Supporting R&D in various aspects of disaster mitigation, preparedness and
prevention and post-disaster management.
• Evolving educational curricula in architecture and engineering institutions
and technical training in polytechnics and schools to include disaster related
topics.
Medium-term measures

• Retrofitting of weak structures in highly seismic zones.

• Preparation of disaster related literature in local languages with dos and
don'ts for construction.
• Getting communities involved in the process of disaster mitigation through
education and awareness.
• Networking of local NGOs working in the area of disaster management.

Post-Disaster Preventive Measures

• Maintenance of law and order, prevention of trespassing, looting etc.
• Evacuation of people.
• Recovery of dead bodies and their disposal.
• Medical care for the injured.
• Supply of food and drinking water.
• Temporary shelters like tents, metal sheds etc.
• Repairing lines of communication and information.
• Restoring transport routes.
• Quick assessment of destruction and demarcation of destroyed areas,
according to the grade of damage.
• Cordoning off severely damaged structures that are liable to collapse during
aftershocks.
Do’s and Don’ts

Before an earthquake

• Know well seismic zonation of our area, get your house evaluated for
retrofitting (if any) and ensure expert civil engineer’s help in making your
house earthquake resistant.
• Pick couple of safe meeting places that are easy to reach. Practice Drop, Cover
and Hold on in each safe place at least once a month.
• Prepare an emergency kit and place it in a safe place. It should contain all
necessary items for your protection and comfort, sufficient for at least three
days.
• Till date prediction of earthquake is not possible. Don’t listen to or spread
rumors.
During an earthquake

• Don’t panic; stay calm and keep others clam, take necessary action.
• Protect yourself, drop to the floor, take cover under a sturdy desk or table
and hold on it so that it doesn’t move away from you. Wait there until the
shaking stops.
• Stay away from glass windows, heavy furniture and anything that could fall,
such as lighting fixtures or other similar items.
• If you are on the upper floor of the building, don’t jump from windows or
balcony. Do not try and run out of a building, you may be hit by falling debris.
Stay inside till the shaking stops and check if it is safe to go outside.
• If you are outdoors, find a clear spot away from buildings, trees, electrical
lines and narrow streets. Drop to the ground and stay there until the shaking
stop.
• If you are in a vehicle, pull over to a clear location, stop and stay there with
your seatbelt fastened until the shaking stops. Avoid bridges, flyovers or
ramps that might have been damaged by earthquake.
• If in costal area, move to higher ground and check tsunami warning.
• If you are in hilly areas, be alert and move away from slopes in case of
landslides and falling rocks.
After an earthquake

• Check up: radio, TV, online updates, social network for emergency
information and safety guidance.
• Watch out for fallen power lines or broken gas lines and stay out of damaged
areas.
• Don’t enter partially damaged buildings. Strong aftershocks can cause
further damage to the buildings and weak structures may collapse.
• Don’t use your two-wheeler/car to drive around the area of damage. Rescue
and relief operations need the road for mobility.
• Anticipate aftershocks, if shaking lasts longer than usual.
• Leave a message stating where you are going if you must evacuate your
residence.
• Evaluate damages and repair any deep cracks in ceiling, beam, column and
foundation with the advice of an expert.
Thank you