ENDOCRINE

SYSTEM
 GLANDS:
An organ which secretes particular chemical
substances for use in the body or for
discharge into the surroundings .
There are three types of glands in our body :
- Endocrine Glands
- Exocrine Glands
- Heterocrine Glands
 EXOCRINE
GLANDS
Exocrine glands are glands that
secrete their products into ducts.
EXAMPLES:
-Sweat Glands
-Salivary Glands
-Mammary Glands
-Stomach
-Liver
ENDOCRINE GLANDS

Glands that secrete their

product (hormones)
directly into the blood
rather than through a duct
EXAMPLES:
-Pituitary Gland
-Pancreas
-Thyroid Glands
-Adrenal Glands
Endocrine System

• is consist of various tissues

and glands whose function
is to produce and secrete
hormones into the
bloodstream.
Hormones
• are released in low concentrations
and are transported to other parts of
the body, where they exert regulatory
effects on cellular processes.
• Their purpose is to coordinate body
activities, control growth and
development and maintain
homeostasis.
ENDOCRINE
GLANDS
Major Hormone-
secreting glands are:

• Pituitary Gland
• Thyroid Gland
• Parathyroid
Glands
• Pancreatic Islets
• Pineal Gland
• Ovaries
• Testes
• Adrenal glands
Endocrine system

• also acts with the nervous

system to investigate
various responses to
changes in the external
and internal environment.
• Over activity of most
hormones is controlled by
negative feedback
mechanisms.
PITUITARY GLAND:
The Pituitary Gland or
hypophysis is consist of anterior
and posterior segment itsj about
1 cm in diameter weighs 0.5 to
1 gram , and lies in a bony
cavity at the base of the brain
called the called the sella
turcica
What is the main function of pituitary gland?
Through secretion of its hormones, the pituitary gland controls
metabolism, growth, sexual maturation, reproduction, blood
pressure and many other vital physical functions and
processes.
 
What happens when the pituitary gland is not functioning
properly?
Hypopituitarism is an underactive pituitary gland that results
in deficiency of one or more pituitary hormones. Symptoms of
hypopituitarism depend on what hormone is deficient and may
include short height, infertility, intolerance to cold, fatigue,
and an inability to produce breast milk.
The steps in the regulation of circulating growth
hormone are as follows:
1. Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH)
is produced in the hypothalamus.
2. GHRH stimulates somatotrophs in the anterior
pituitary to release growth hormone (GH).
3.GH stimulates the liver to produce IGF-I
4.IGF-I stimulates the release of somatostatin in
hypothalamus.
5.Somatostatin causes somatotrophs to reduce
GH release.
HORMONES :
Anterior Lobe:

*Growth hormone (GH) Posterior Lobe:

*Thyroid stimulating
*Adrenocorticotrophic
-Vasopressin
hormone (ACTH) (ADH)
*Melanocyte stimulating -Oxytocin
hormone
*Prolactin
*Follicle stimulating
hormone (LH)
*Luteinising hormone
GROWTH
HORMONE (GH):
Stimulating of growth of bones , cartilage
and connective tissue.
-Somatomedins are synthesized in the
liver ,in response to stimulation by the
GH
-The effects of GH on skeletal growth are
mediated by somatomedins
 CONTROL OF GROWTH
HORMONE

The release of GH is primary

under the control of two
hyphothalamic hormones:
-GH releasing hormone
-GH inhibiting hormone
Stimuli increases GH secretions
by stimulating GHRH release
during exercise and stress.
DISEASE RELATED TO GROWTH
HORMONE
Gigantism – it is due to overproduction of GH
during adolescence. It is characterized
It is characterized:
*stature
*Bilateral gynaecomastia
*Large hand and feet
Acromegaly – It is
due to excessive of
GH during adulthood
It is characterized by:
*Broad ,thick nose
*Thickening of the
skin
*Prominent Brow
*Pronthism
Elongation and
widening of mandible
Dwarfism – Deficiency of GH
secretion.
*shortness of stature
* small genitalia
* delicate extremities
Thyroid –stimulating hormone (TSH)
is a glycoprotein hormone produced
by the anterior pituitary , it is the
primary stimulus for thyroid hormone
production by the thyroid gland .It
also exerts growth effects on thyroid
follicular cells leading to enlargement
of the thyroid.
CALCITONIN : It is a hormone secreted by the
cells of thyroid .
The main actions :
*to increase bone calcium.
*to decrease blood calcium.
✓ Thyroid stimulating hormone controls
regulation of thyroid hormones it regulated by the
hypothalamus via negative feedback mechanism.
✓ It is a reaction that causes a decrease in function
, it occurs in response to some kind of stimulus.
 DISEASE RELATED TO THYROID
STIMULATING HORMONE

Graves ‘ Disease
Hashimoto’s
Thyroiditis
Thyroid Nodules
GOITER an
enlargement of thyroid
gland caused by iodine
deficiency .
Characteristics features:
*Swelling in the neck
*Breathing difficulties
*Cough Hoarseness
ADRENOCORTICOTROPHIC HORMONE (ACTH).

Is the outer layer of the two adrenal gland. Which rest on top of
the kidneys.
The major types of hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex are
corticosteroids, mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids and small
amounts of androgens.
The adrenal cortex is the outer region and also the largest part of
an adrenal gland. It is divided into three separate zones: zona
glomerulosa, zona fasciculata and zona reticularis. Each zone is
responsible for producing specific hormones. It is also a
secondary site of androgen synthesis.
DISEASE RELATED TO
ADRENOCORTICOTROPHI
C HORMONE (ACTH)

CUSHING ‘S SYNDROME –
It is caused due to hyper
secretion of glucocorticoids.
Characteristics features
*pain in face neck and
abdomen
*peptic ulcers
*menstrual disturbance
*suppression of growth
Addison’s Disease – it is
due to secretion of
glucocorticoids and
mineralocorticoids.
EFFECTS:
Muscle weakness
Vomiting and diarrhea
Tiredness
Low blood volume
Hypotension
Mental confusion
Conn’s Syndrome –
this is due to excessive
secretion of
mineralocorticoids,
usually caused by
tumor affecting only
one adrenal gland .
Melanocyte stimulating hormone
- characterizes a group of
hormones made by the pituitary
gland , hypothalamus , and skin
cells , it is essential for preserving
the skin from ultraviolet rays ,
the development of pigmentation
and controlling appetite.
 Disease related to Melanocyte
stimulating hormone :

Having a high level of MSH leads to increased

production of melanin this enhancement due to
long term sun exposure or tanning .

Hyperpigmentation (darkening of the skin) is a

common skin concern in patients with adrenal
insufficiency , as a result the hypothalamus
stimulates the pituitary gland to make more
hormones that might boost the adrenal glands.

MSH levels are also high during pregnancy and in

women who take birth control pills , which can
also lead to hyperpigmentation.
PROLACTIN – Is a
hormone made by the Prolactin levels are
pituitary gland , a normally high for
small gland at the base pregnant women and
of the brain .
new mothers .
Prolactin causes the
breast to grow and Levels are normally
make milk during low for non pregnant
pregnancy after birth. women and for men.
 Disease related to prolactin

PROLACTINOMA- a benign tumor in

your pituitary gland that produces too
much prolactin a disease affecting in
the hypothalamus the part of the brain
that controls the pituitary gland .

In women, too much prolactin can also

cause menstrual problems and infertility
(the inability to get pregnant). In men, it
can lead to lower sex drive and erectile
dysfunction
LUTEINIZING HORMONE (LH)
*In females , an acute rise of LH
triggers ovulation and
development of the corpus
luteum
*In males it stimulates the
production of testosterone.
Luteinizing Hormone also called interstitial cell
stimulating hormone , one of the two
gonadotropic hormones ( hormones concerned

with the regulation of the gonads , or sex

glands) that is produced in the pituitary gland .
GONADS
Serve two basic functions: they secrete sex
steroids (predominantly testosterone
from the testes and estradiol and
progesterone from the ovaries) and the
produce gametes (sperm and ova). Sex
steroids are responsible for the
establishments and maintenance of
secondary sex characteristics, whereas
gametes are responsible for reproduction.
Changes in the Female Reproductive System:
Menopause is just of facet of the large
climacteric which is the long transition phase
extending many years before and after the last
menstrual event.
The estrogen deficiency that accompanies
menopause produces changes in the vulva,
vagina, cervix, uterus, fallopian tubes, ovaries
and pelvic and supportive ligaments and tissue.
After menopause, the ovary and myometrium
shrink and become sclerotic. The size of the
uterus is greatly reduced and the cervix is
more even with the vaginal vault.
DISEASE RELATED TO LUTEINIZING
HORMONE (LH)

Women – an increase in LH during in the middle

of your cycle causes your ovaries to release eggs
( ovulation)
Your doctor might order an LH test if :
• You’re having trouble getting pregnant
• Your periods aren’t regular
• To see if you are in menopause.
CHANGES IN THE MALE
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
The male reproductive system undergoes
significant changes with aging. Testicular
volume decreases, there is some sclerosis of
the tubules and the number of testosterone-
producing Leydig and Sertoli cells decline.
Spermatogenesis is somewhat impaired, so
there is a decrease in the number of
spermatozoa, but reproduction can take
place even into very old age.
 Hormones of posterior
Pituitary
Anti – diuretic hormone /Vasopressin
*It is a hypothalamic hormones synthesized in
the cells of the supra optic nucleus
It has two primary functions:
*To retain water in the body
*To constrict blood vessel.
The major function of ADH is to regulate the
concentration of water in the body fluids by
excretion in the urine .
 DISEASE RELATED
TO ADH:

Diabetes Insipidus – condition

characterized by excessive thirst.
Diabetes Mellitus (type 2)
A group of metabolic diseases
characterized by hyperglycemia resulting
from defects in insulin production,
insulin action or combination of both.
Signs and symptoms of type 2 diabetes often
develop slowly. In fact, you can be living with
type 2 diabetes for years and not know it. When
signs and symptoms are present, they may include:
• Increased thirst
• Frequent urination
• Increased hunger
• Unintended weight loss
• Fatigue
• Blurred vision
• Slow-healing sores
• Frequent infections
• Numbness or tingling in the hands or feet
• Areas of darkened skin, usually in the armpits
and neck
Diagnosis

Type 2 diabetes is usually diagnosed using the

glycated hemoglobin (A1C) test. This blood test
indicates your average blood sugar level for the past
two to three months. Results are interpreted as
follows:

• Below 5.7% is normal.

• 5.7% to 6.4% is diagnosed as prediabetes.
• 6.5% or higher on two separate tests indicates
diabetes.
If the A1C test isn't available, or if you have certain
conditions that interfere with an A1C test, your doctor may
use the following tests to diagnose diabetes:

Random blood sugar test. Blood sugar values are

expressed in milligrams of sugar per deciliter (mg/dL) or
millimoles of sugar per liter (mmol/L) of blood. Regardless
of when you last ate, a level of 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)
or higher suggests diabetes, especially if you also have
signs and symptoms of diabetes, such as frequent urination
and extreme thirst.
Fasting blood sugar test. A blood sample is
taken after an overnight fast. Results are
interpreted as follows:

• Less than 100 mg/dL (5.6 mmol/L) is normal.

• 100 to 125 mg/dL (5.6 to 6.9 mmol/L) is
diagnosed as prediabetes.
• 126 mg/dL (7 mmol/L) or higher on two
separate tests is diagnosed as diabetes.
Oral glucose tolerance test. This test is less commonly
used than the others, except during pregnancy. You'll need
to fast overnight and then drink a sugary liquid at the
doctor's office. Blood sugar levels are tested periodically
for the next two hours. Results are interpreted as follows:

• Less than 140 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L) is normal.

• 140 to 199 mg/dL (7.8 mmol/L and 11.0 mmol/L) is
diagnosed as prediabetes.
• 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L) or higher after two hours
suggests diabetes.
Prevention of Complications:
Complications
 Heart and blood vessel disease
 Nerve damage (neuropathy) in limbs
 Other nerve damage
 Kidney disease
 Eye damage
 Skin conditions
 Slow healing
 Hearing impairment
Management:
 
The goals of management for persons with diabetes
mellitus are to relieve symptoms, control
hyperglycemia and prevent acute and chronic
complications while maintaining quality of life and
independence. The treatment is essentially the same
for all age-groups: meal planning, exercise, self-
monitoring and medications when necessary. Maintain
fasting glucose levels below 126 mg/dl and 2 hours
postprandial glucose levels below 200 mg/dl is
possible.
OXYTOCIN –stimulates
contraction of mammary gland
to produce milk stimulate
contraction of the smooth
muscles of the uterus.

The primary action of oxytocin (

pitocin) is to release granular
cells into ducts.
Way's to balance your hormones

1.Consuming adequate protein triggers the production of hormones that suppress appetite
and help you feel full. Aim for a minimum of 20–30 grams of protein per meal.

2.Engage in Regular Exercise Performing strength training, aerobics, walking or other

forms of physical activity can modify hormone levels in a way that reduces the risk of
disease and protects muscle mass during the aging process.

3.Avoid Sugar and Refined Carbs

4.Learn to Manage Stress- Engaging in stress-
reduction behaviors like meditation, yoga,
massage and listening to soothing music can help
normalize your levels of the stress hormone
cortisol.

5 .Avoid Overeating and Undereating

6.Drink Green Tea

7.Eat Fatty Fish OftenLong-chain omega-3 fatty

acids may help lower cortisol and epinephrine,
increase insulin sensitivity and decrease insulin
levels in obese and insulin-resistant individuals.
END