V.

COGNITIVE
PERSPECTIV
E
DUNGCA, MARAH T.
 V. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE

01 02 03 04

Types of Stages of Gagne’s Condition

Information
Knowledge Information of Learning
Processing
Processing
 01
INFORMATIO
N
PROCESSING
INFORMATION PROCESSING

● Information Processing Theories

Information Processing is how individuals perceive, analyze,
manipulate, use, and remember information. Unlike Piaget’s theory,
this approach proposes that cognitive development is ongoing and
gradual, not organized into distinct stages. The areas of basic
cognitive changes generally occur in five areas: ATTENTION,
MEMORY, PROCESSING SPEED, ORGANIZATION OF THINKING, and
METACOGNITION.
ATTENTION

Improvements are seen in selective attention(the process by which one

focuses on one stimulus while tuning out another), as well as divided
attention (the ability to pay attention to two or more stimuli at the same
time).

Changes in attention have been described by many as the key to changes

in human memory (Nelson & Fivush, 2004; Posner & Rothbart, 2007).
However, attention is not a unified function; it is comprised of sub-
processes. Our ability to focus on a single task or stimulus while ignoring
distracting information, called selective attention.
ATTENTION

There is a sharp improvement in selective attention from age six into

adolescence (Vakil, Blachstein, Sheinman, & Greenstein, 2009).
Sustained attention is the ability to stay on task for long periods. The
ability to switch our focus between tasks or external stimuli is called
divided attention or multitasking, which also improves into adolescence
(Carlson, Zelazo, & Faja, 2013).
 MEMORY

Memory is an information processing system; therefore, we often compare it to a

computer. Memory is the set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve
information over different periods of time.

encodin
storage retrieval
g
THREE TYPES OF ENCODING
● SEMANTIC ENCODING
The encoding of words and their meaning is known as semantic encoding. It was
first demonstrated by William Bousfield (1935) in an experiment in which he
asked people to memorize words.
● VISUAL ENCODING
Visual encoding is the encoding of images
● ACOUSTING ENCODING
Acoustic encoding is the encoding of sounds, words in particular
 Some years ago, psychologists Fergus Craik and Endel Tulving (1975)
conducted a series of experiments to find out. Participants were given words
along with questions about them. The questions required the participants to
process the words at one of the three levels. The visual processing questions
included such things as asking the participants about the font of the letters. The
acoustic processing questions asked the participants about the sound or rhyming
of the words, and the semantic processing questions asked the participants
about the meaning of the words. After participants were presented with the
words and questions, they were given an unexpected recall or recognition task.
STORAGE

Once the information has been encoded, we have to retain it somehow. Our
brains take the encoded information and place it in storage. Storage is the
creation of a permanent record of information.
For a memory to go into storage (i.e., long-term memory), it has to pass through
three distinct stages: Sensory Memory, Short-Term Memory, and finally, Long-
Term Memory. These stages were first proposed by Richard Atkinson and
Richard Shiffrin (1968). Their model of human memory, called Atkinson-Shiffrin
(A-S) or three-box model, is based on the belief that we process memories in the
same way that a computer processes information.
RETRIEVAL

The act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious
awareness is known as retrieval.

There are three ways to retrieve information from long-term memory storage
systems: recall, recognition, and relearning. Recall is what we most often think
about when we talk about memory retrieval: it means you can access
information without cues.

Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously

learned after re-encountering it. It involves a process of comparison.
Relearning involves learning information that you previously learned
Organization of Thinking

During middle childhood and adolescence, young people can learn and
remember more due to improvements in the way they attend to and store
information. As people learn more about the world, they develop more
categories for concepts and learn more efficient strategies for storing and
retrieving information. One significant reason is that they continue to have
more experiences on which to tie new information. In other words,
their knowledge base, knowledge in particular areas that makes learning new
information easier, expands (Berger, 2014).
COGNITIVE CONTROL

As noted earlier, executive functions, such as attention, increases in working

memory, and cognitive flexibility, have been steadily improving since early
childhood. Studies have found that executive function is very competent in
adolescence. However, self-regulation, or the ability to control impulses, may
still fail. A failure in self-regulation is especially true when there is high stress or
high demand on mental functions (Luciano & Collins, 2012). While high stress or
demand may tax even an adult’s self-regulatory abilities, neurological changes
in the adolescent brain may make teens particularly prone to more risky
decision-making under these conditions.
INDUCTIVE AND DEDUCTIVE REASONING

Inductive reasoning emerges in childhood and is a type of reasoning that is

sometimes characterized as “bottom-up- processing” in which specific
observations, or specific comments from those in authority, may be used to draw
general conclusions. However, in inductive reasoning, the veracity of the
information that created the general conclusion does not guarantee the accuracy
of that conclusion. For instance, a child who has only observed thunder on
summer days may conclude that it only thunders in the summer.

In contrast, deductive reasoning, sometimes called “top-down-processing,”

emerges in adolescence. This type of reasoning starts with some overarching
principle and, based on this, propose specific conclusions. Deductive reasoning
guarantees an accurate conclusion if the premises on which it is based are
accurate.
INDUCTIVE REASONING vs DEDUCTIVE
REASONING
INTUTITIVE VS ANALYTICAL THINKING
Cognitive psychologists often refer to intuitive and analytic thought as the Dual-
Process Model, the notion that humans have two distinct networks for
processing information (Albert & Steinberg, 2011). Intuitive thought is automatic,
unconscious, and fast (Kahneman, 2011), and it is more experiential and
emotional. In contrast, Analytic thought is deliberate, conscious, and rational.
While these systems interact, they are distinct (Kuhn, 2013).

Intuitive thought is easier and more commonly used in everyday life. It is also
more commonly used by children and teens than by adults (Klaczynski, 2001).
The quickness of adolescent thought, along with the maturation of the limbic
system, may make teens more prone to emotional, intuitive thinking than adults.
CRITICAL THINKING
Critical thinking, or a detailed examination of beliefs, courses of action, and
evidence, involves teaching children how to think. The purpose of critical thinking
is to evaluate information in ways that help us make informed decisions. Critical
thinking involves better understanding a problem through gathering, evaluating,
and selecting information, and also by considering many possible solutions.

Ennis (1987) identified several skills useful in critical thinking. These include
analyzing arguments, clarifying information, judging the credibility of a source,
making value judgments, and deciding on an action. Metacognition is essential to
critical thinking because it allows us to reflect on the information as we make
decisions.
METACOGNITION

Metacognition refers to the knowledge we have about our thinking and our

ability to use this awareness to regulate our cognitive processes (Bruning,
Schraw, Norby, & Ronning, 2004).

Bjorklund (2005) describes a developmental progression in the acquisition

and use of memory strategies. Such strategies are often lacking in younger
children but increase in frequency as children progress through elementary
school.

A person may experience three deficiencies in their use of memory

strategies. A mediation deficiency occurs when a person does not grasp the
strategy being taught, and thus, does not benefit from its use.
METACOGNITION
In a production deficiency, the person does not spontaneously use a memory
strategy and has to be prompted to do so. In this case, the person knows the
strategy and is more than capable of using it, but they fail to “produce” the
strategy on their own.

A utilization deficiency refers to a person using an appropriate strategy, but it

fails to aid their performance. Utilization deficiency is common in the early
stages of learning a new memory strategy (Schneider & Pressley, 1997; miller,
2000). Until the use of the strategy becomes automatic, it may slow down the
learning process, as space is taken up in memory by the strategy itself.
 02
TYPES OF
KNOWLEDGE
FACTUAL KNOWLEDGE

You can define factual knowledge simply as the terminologies, specific details, and
basic elements within any domain. This is the information that can and must be
learned through exposure, repetition, and commitment to memory. Luckily, since
our memories are not the best places to store facts, we can help ourselves by
knowing where to access factual knowledge when we need it (i.e. where to find
the information in our books, online, our notebooks or journals, or asking that
person who you know knows it!).
CONCEPTUAL KNOWLEDGE

Related to factual knowledge, conceptual knowledge can be understood as

knowing the interrelationships and/or functions among the details and elements
that make up a larger structure.

This definition includes (1) knowing information classification and categorization,

(2) knowing principles and generalizations, and (3) knowing theories, models, and
structures. Basically, conceptual knowledge is knowing that facts can be organized
in meaningful ways.
PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE

This knowledge type is critical for success in goal attainment because it puts the
“what” into action through the “how” process. Procedural knowledge can be
understood as knowledge of (1) subject-specific skills and algorithms, (2) subject-
specific techniques and methods, and (3) criteria for deciding when to use the right
procedures.
Many times, we see others performing wonderfully, and we ask ourselves: How do
they do it?
METACOGNITIVE KNOWLEDGE

Metacognitive knowledge can be understood as (1) strategic knowledge, (2)

knowledge about cognitive tasks (i.e. contextual, conditional), and (3) self-
knowledge. Because people are complex, and groups of people only add to the
dynamic of complexity within a system, having a good measure of metacognitive
knowledge (that is, engaging in this type of thinking) is critical to your
performance, well-being, and success.

For example, if you are meeting a client who shares vastly different cultural values
and ways of knowing than you, then it behooves you to be paying attention to
contextual clues.
 03
STAGES OF
INFORMATION
PROCESSING
SENSORY MEMORY

In the Atkinson-Shiffrin model, stimuli from the environment are processed first
in sensory memory: storage of brief sensory events, such as sights, sounds, and
tastes. It is very brief storage, essentially long enough for the brain to register and
start processing the information. Sensory memory can hold visual information for
about half of a second and auditory information for a few seconds.  

Unlike other cognitive processes, it seems that sensory memory does not change
from infancy (Siegler, 1998). However, without the ability to encode the
information, it fades from sensory memory quickly (Papalia et al., 2008). As
children and adolescence become more capable of encoding, they can take more
advantage of the information available to them in the sensory memory.
SENSORY MEMORY
SHORT-TERM (WORKING) MEMORY

Short-term memory (STM), also called working memory, is a temporary storage

system that processes incoming sensory memory. Short-term memory is the bridge
between information taken in through sensory memory and the more permanent
storage of information in long-term memory. Information that is not moved along
from short-term memory to long-term memory will be forgotten.
SHORT-TERM (WORKING) MEMORY

Short-term memory is also called working memory because this is the system
where the “work” of memory happens. If you are retrieving information from your
long-term memory, you are moving it into your working memory, where you can
think about that information.

This step of rehearsal, the conscious repetition of information to be remembered,

to move STM into long-term memory is called memory consolidation.
EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS
Executive function (ef) refers to self-regulatory processes, such as the ability to
inhibit behavior or cognitive flexibility, that enable adaptive responses to new
situations or to reach a specific goal. Executive function skills gradually emerge
during early childhood and continue to develop throughout childhood and
adolescence. Like many cognitive changes, brain maturation, especially the
prefrontal cortex, along with experience, influence the development of executive
function skills.
STM AND LEARNING
Individuals differ in their memory abilities, and these differences predict academic
performance (Prebler, Krajewski, & Hasselhorn, 2013). Children with learning
disabilities in math and reading often have difficulties with working memory
(Alloway, 2009).

Some studies have also shown that more intensive training of working memory
strategies, such as chunking, aid in improving the capacity of working memory in
children with poor working memory (Alloway, Bibile, & Lau, 2013).
LONG TERM MEMORY
Long-term memory (LTM) is the continuous storage of information. Unlike short-
term memory, the storage capacity of LTM has no real limits. It encompasses all the
things you can remember what happened more than just a few minutes ago to all
of the things that you can remember what happened days, weeks, and years ago.

Long-term memory is divided into two types: explicit and implicit Understanding
the different types is important because a person’s age or particular types of brain
trauma or disorders can leave certain types of LTM intact while having disastrous
consequences for other types. 
EXPLICIT MEMORIES AND IMPLICIT MEMORIES
Explicit memories, also called declarative memories, are those we consciously try
to remember and recall. For example, if you are studying for your chemistry exam,
the material you are learning will be part of your explicit memory.

Implicit memories, also called non-declarative memories, are memories that are

not part of our consciousness. They are memories formed from behaviors. Implicit
memory is also called non-declarative memory.
EXPLICIT MEMORIES AND IMPLICIT MEMORIES
PROCEDURAL MEMORY
Procedural memory is a type of implicit memory: it stores information about how
to do things. It is the memory for skilled actions, such as how to brush your teeth,
how to drive a car, how to swim the crawl (freestyle) stroke
SEMANTIC MEMORY
Explicit or declarative memory has to do with the storage of facts and events we
personally experienced. Explicit (declarative) memory has two parts: semantic
memory and episodic memory. Semantic means having to do with language and
knowledge about language.

Stored in our semantic memory is knowledge about words, concepts, and

language-based knowledge and facts.
EPISODIC MEMORY
Episodic memory is information about events we have personally experienced. The
concept of episodic memory was first proposed about 40 years ago (Tulving, 1972).
Since then, Tulving and others have looked at the scientific evidence and
reformulated the theory. Currently, scientists believe that episodic memory is
memory about happenings in particular places at particular times, the what,
where, and when of an event (Tulving, 2002). It involves recollection of visual
imagery as well as the feeling of familiarity (Hassabis & Maguire, 2007).

A component of episodic memory is autobiographical memory, or our personal

narrative.
 04
GAGNE’S CONDITION OF
LEARNING
Robert Gagne describes conditions of learning as a means through which
individuals and groups acquire relevant skills to be accepted in society.
Learning is a direct result of human behaviour which is influenced by the
environment and the individual thinking process of learners.

The foundations of Gagne’s Condition of learning lies in the theories of

behaviourism. He also mentioned that learning a specific skill depends on
previous learning skills in a logical and sequential manner that contributes to
building a learning experience.
It is important to group learning goals according to their learning outcomes.
Learning outcomes are dependent on planning what is meant to be learned
and what is required at the end of the learning session. Gagne proposed a
series of critical conditions of learning which he then regarded as important in
the learning of different outcomes. These outcomes are distinct in terms of
internal organization in long term memory and required mental processing:
VERBAL INFORMATION

● includes declarative knowledge that is stored

in distributed forms. It should be related to
previous information that draws attention to
other features by including variations in
speech or print, provides meaningful content
for effective encoding and cues for effective
recall and generalisation. 
INTELLECTUAL SKILLS

● include procedural knowledge such as steps

of a process or hierarchies with higher and
lower order skills. There is a need for prior
knowledge here, it calls attention to
distinctive features and stimulates the recall
of previously learned components' skills.
COGNITIVE STRATEGIES

● are skills that influence the skills and

activation of other systems by breaking the
problem into parts. It uses less prior
knowledge and more practical examples and
experiences backed by the feedback on the
strategy or outcome.
MOTOR SKILLS

● deal with skills where error-less performance

is expected. It encourages mental practice.
Prior learning of the process and practice
enhances the overall process. 
ATTITUDES

● are mental states that influence an

individual’s actions and require a human to
observe and learn from those who also
provide feedback.
THE NINE LEVELS OF
INSTRUCTION
LEVEL 1: GAINING ATTENTION (RECEPTION)
Start the learning process by gaining the attention of your audience. It starts
the learning process when the learner is being receptive to the information
received. This may be achieved by calling names of learners during the
discussion to completely focus attention on learners. 
LEVEL 2: INFORMING LEARNERS OF THE
OBJECTIVE (EXPECTANCY)
Next, learners must know what they are about to learn and why. At the
start of the lecture, they should be aware of what they will have learned by
the end of the session, its benefit to them and the organisation. 
For instance, explaining to learners why they will learn what they will learn
and how to apply the concept to your practice. This makes them more
receptive to learning.
LEVEL 3: STIMULATING RECALL OF PRIOR
LEARNING (RETRIEVAL) 
Matching the concept with what learners have learned previously. Prior
experiences can be used to solve new problems and resolve matters
easily. This may also take the form of a simple Q/A session to establish a
link between specific material knowledge. 
LEVEL 4: PRESENTING THE STIMULUS
(SELECTIVE PERCEPTION)
Presenting new information in an effective manner using more examples, use
of timelines, diagrams, concept maps and student discussions. Try using
different media and styles such as visual cues and verbal instructions to suit
people with different learning styles. 
LEVEL 5: PROVIDING LEARNING GUIDANCE
(SEMANTIC ENCODING)
Helping your team learn and retain most of the information by providing
alternative approaches to illustrate the information you are trying to convey to
the learner. Examples include; case studies and graphics. Giving time for
discussion and answering queries with relevant additional materials.
LEVEL 6: ELICITING PERFORMANCE
(RESPONDING)
Now is the time to see if learners can demonstrate their knowledge with
what was taught to them. Give them a brief test after each task/ unit to
see if they can apply it to their learning before moving forward. 
LEVEL 7: PROVIDING FEEDBACK
(REINFORCEMENT)
After a clear demonstration of knowledge from the learners’ end, it's time to
give feedback to them and guide them on the points they missed. Your
feedback and tips will help them improve. Discuss their results, be
professional with comments and give them guidelines to work on. This is a
healthy exercise if conducted properly. 
LEVEL 8: ASSESSING PERFORMANCE
(RETRIEVAL)
When learners have had a good opportunity to practice and refine their
learning it is time to assess their learning with a test at the end of the
course or any other measurement tool such as a case study or seminar to
show learners have learned the material or skill effectively. This test shall
be completed without any assistance or coaching.
LEVEL 9: ENHANCING RETENTION AND TRANSFER
(GENERALISATION)
At this stage, learners show the transfer of knowledge through the application
of skills and knowledge. They should then be provided with real-life examples to
apply the acquired knowledge. 
Gagne’s conditions of learning have its own pros and cons. People who have
learning issues may respond better to this regime that is clearly very systematic
where learners are provided with resources and a blueprint for learning. It can
also be adjusted to suit their needs. However, it also requires a great deal of
assistance overall where critical thinking and instructions can’t be avoided. This
practice may restrict learners’ imagination and exploration instinct. But overall,
these 9 steps are nine events of instruction, systematically designed as
foundation blocks of learning in modern classrooms. 
 APPLICATION
1. Gain attention – show variety of computer-generated triangles
2. Identify objective – pose question: “What is an equilateral triangle?”
3. Recall prior learning – review definitions of triangles
4. Present stimulus – give definition of equilateral triangle
5. Guide learning- show example of how to create equilateral
6. Elicit performance – ask students to create 5 different examples
7. Provide feedback – check all examples as correct/incorrect
8. Assess performance- provide scores and remediation
9. Enhance retention/transfer – show pictures of objects and ask students
to identify equilaterals
 PRINCIPLES

1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.

2. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the
conditions of learning.
3. The specific operations that constitute instructional events are different
for each different type of learning outcome.
4. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and
a sequence of instruction.
 THANK YOU
FOR
LISTENING!
I HOPE YOU HAVE A GREAT DAY 