The Second Meeting

Data Communications

1
 Data Communications
Efektivitas sistem komunikasi data bergantung pada tiga
karakteristik mendasar:
Pengiriman: Sistem harus mengirimkan data ke tujuan
yang benar
Akurasi: Sistem harus mengirimkan data secara akurat
Ketepatan waktu: Sistem harus mengirimkan data secara
tepat waktu. Dalam kasus pengiriman video dan audio
tepat waktu berarti transmisi real-time.
2
5 Komponen Komunikasi Data

3
Tasks involved in sending a letter

4
Seven layers of the OSI model

5
The interaction between layers in the OSI model

6
An exchange using the OSI model

7
Summary of layers

8
Data and Signals

9
 Data versus Signal
 Data: Entitas yang menyampaikan makna
atau informasi
 Sinyal: Electric or Electromagnetic
representations of data (sekumpulan data yang
berisi informasi mengenai fenomena fisik)
 Transmisi: komunikasi data dengan
propagasi dan pemrosesan sinyal

Elektromagnetik = kombinasi medan listrik dan medan magnet yang berosilasi

dan merambat melewati ruang dan membawa energi dari satu tempat ke tempat
yang lain. 10
 Note:

To be transmitted, data must be

transformed to electromagnetic
signals.

11
Data and Signal
Data and Signal
 Analog and Digital Signals
 An analog signal has infinitely many levels of
intensity (strength) over a period of time. A digital
signal can have only a limited number of defined
values, often as simple as 1 and 0.
 Both analog and digital signals can take two forms:
periodic and aperiodic (non periodic)
 A periodic signal completes a pattern (cycle) within
a measurable time frame, called a period, and
repeats that pattern over subsequent identical
periods.
 An aperiodic signal changes without exhibiting a
pattern that repeats over time.

14
 Note:

Signals can be analog or digital.

Analog signals can have an infinite
number of values in a range; digital
signals can have only a limited
number of values.

15
Comparison of analog and digital signals

16
 Note:

In data communication, we commonly

use periodic analog signals and
aperiodic digital signals.

17
 Periodic Analog signals

• Periodic analog signals can be classified as simple or composite.

• A simple periodic analog signal, a sine wave, cannot be
decomposed into simpler signals. It is the most fundamental form
of a periodic analog signal. A composite analog signal is
composed of multiple sine waves.
• A sine wave can be described mathematically as
s(t)=A sin(2ft+)
Where:
s: is the instantaneous amplitude,
A: the peak amplitude,
f: the frequency and
: the phase.

18
 Analog signals
• Peak amplitude: Absolute value of the highest
intensity of the signal. For electric signals, peak
amplitude is normally measured in volts.
• Period (T): Amount of time in seconds, a signal
needs to complete one cycle.
• Frequency (f): Number of periods in one second.
f=1/T and T=1/f. A sine wave is comprehensively
defined by its amplitude, frequency and phase.

19
A sine wave

20
Amplitude

21
 Note:

Frequency and period are inverses of

each other.

22
Period and frequency

23
Units of periods and frequencies
Unit Equivalent Unit Equivalent

Seconds (s) 1s hertz (Hz) 1 Hz

Milliseconds (ms) 10–3 s kilohertz (KHz) 103 Hz

Microseconds (ms) 10–6 s megahertz (MHz) 106 Hz

Nanoseconds (ns) 10–9 s gigahertz (GHz) 109 Hz

Picoseconds (ps) 10–12 s terahertz (THz) 1012 Hz

24
 Note:

Frequency is the rate of change with

respect to time. Change in a short span
of time means high frequency. Change
over a long span of time means low
frequency.

25
 Note:

If a signal does not change at all, its

frequency is zero. If a signal changes
instantaneously, its frequency is
infinite.

26
 Note:

Phase describes the position of the

waveform relative to time zero.

27
Relationships between different phases

28
Example 1
A sine wave is offset one-sixth of a cycle with respect
to time zero. What is its phase in degrees and radians?

Solution
We know that one complete cycle is 360 degrees.
Therefore, 1/6 cycle is
(1/6) 360 = 60 degrees = 60 x 2 /360 rad = 1.046 rad

29
 Wavelength
• Wavelength is the distance a simple signal (sine
wave) can travel in one period.
Wavelength= Propagation speed x Period
= Propagation speed/Frequency
• The wavelength is normally measured in
micrometers (microns, 10-6)
• For example, the wavelength of red light
(frequency=4x1014) in air is:
λ=c/f=(3x108)/(4x1014) =0.75x10-6m=0.75μm
30
Example 2
Sebuah perangkat bluetooth ditransmisikan dengan
frekuensi 2,4 GHz. Berapa periode (T) dan panjang
gelombang ( l ) dari sinyal bluetooth tersebut?

Solution

31
Wavelength

32
 Note:

An analog signal is best represented in

the frequency domain.

33
Time and frequency domains

34
Time and frequency domains (continued)

35
Time and frequency domains (continued)

36
 Note:

A single-frequency sine wave is not

useful in data communications; we
need to change one or more of its
characteristics to make it useful.

37
 Note:

When we change one or more

characteristics of a single-frequency
signal, it becomes a composite signal
made of many frequencies.

38
Composite signals
• Any composite signal is a sum of a set of sine waves
of different frequencies, phases and amplitudes.

s(t)=A1 sin(2f1t+1)+A2
sin(2f2t+2)+A3 sin(2f3t+3)+…

39
 Composite signals
• The term with frequency f is dominant and is called
the fundamental frequency.
• The term with frequency 3f is called the third
harmonic, the term with frequency 5f is the fifth
harmonic, and so on.
• To recreate the complete square wave signal requires
all odd harmonics up to infinity.

40
Three harmonics

41
Frequency spectrum comparison

42
Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth
• The description of a signal using the frequency domain
and containing all its components is called the frequency
spectrum.
• A medium (cable or air) may pass some frequencies and
may weaken others. To maintain the integrity of the
signal, the medium needs to pass every frequency (and
also preserve the amplitude and phase). However, no
transmission medium is perfect.
• The range of frequencies that a medium can pass
(Maximum frequency-Minimum frequency) is called
the bandwidth of the medium

43
Frequency Spectrum and Bandwidth
 If the bandwidth of a medium does not match the
bandwidth of a signal (Maximum frequency of
the signal-Minimum frequency of the signal),
some of the frequencies are lost.
 Passing a square wave through a medium will
always deform the signal.
 Voice normally has a spectrum of 300 to 3300 Hz
(a bandwidth of 3000 Hz). If we use a
transmission line with a bandwidth of 1000
(between 1500 and 2500), the voice may not be
recognizable

44
Signal corruption

45
 Note:

The bandwidth is a property of a

medium: It is the difference between
the highest and the lowest frequencies
that the medium can
satisfactorily pass.

46
 Note:

We use the term bandwidth to refer to

the property of a medium (bandwidth
of a medium) or the width of the
frequency spectrum of a signal
(bandwidth of a signal)

47
Bandwidth

48
Example 2
If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves
with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700, and 900 Hz,
what is the bandwidth? Draw the spectrum, assuming
all components have a maximum amplitude of 10 V.

Solution

B = fh  fl = 900  100 = 800 Hz

The spectrum has only five spikes, at 100, 300, 500,
700, and 900

49
Example 2

50
Digital Signals
 Most digital signals are aperiodic, and thus period or
frequency is not appropriate.
 Two new terms-bit interval (instead of period) and bit
rate (instead of frequency)- are used to describe digital
signals.
 Bit interval is the time required to send one single bit.
 The bit rate is the number of bit intervals per second, i.e.,
the number of bits sent in one second. This is expressed as
bps.
 A digital signal with all its sudden changes, is actually a
composite signal having an infinite number of frequencies.

51
A digital signal

52
Bit rate and bit interval

53
Example 3
A digital signal has a bit rate of 2000 bps. What is the
duration of each bit (bit interval)

Solution
The bit interval is the inverse of the bit rate.
Bit interval = 1/ 2000 s = 0.000500 s
= 0.000500 x 106 s = 500 s

54
 Note:

A digital signal is a composite signal

with an infinite bandwidth.

55
 Note:

The bit rate and the bandwidth are

proportional to each other.

56
Data Rate Limits

Data rate depends on 3 factors:

1.The bandwidth available
2.The levels of signals (i.e number of signal levels) we can use
3.The quality of the channel (the level of the noise).
4.For Noiseless Channel: Nyquist Bit Rate

BitRate = 2*Bandwidth*log2L
where L is the number of signal levels used to
represent data

57
 Data Rate Limits
For Noisy Channels: Shanon Capacity
In reality we cannot have a noiseless channel; the channel is
always noisy
Capacity (Max.Bitrate)=Bandwidth*log2(1+SNR)
Where SNR is the signal-to-noise ratio.
We cannot achieve a data rate higher than, the capacity of
the channel, no matter how many levels of signals we use.
Thus Capacity characterizes the channel not the method of
transmission.

58
Example 4
Consider a noiseless channel with a bandwidth of 3000
Hz transmitting a signal with two signal levels. The
maximum bit rate can be calculated as

Bit Rate = 2  3000  log2 2 = 6000 bps

59
Example 5
Consider the same noiseless channel, transmitting a
signal with four signal levels (for each level, we send
two bits). The maximum bit rate can be calculated as:

Bit Rate = 2 x 3000 x log2 4 = 12,000 bps

60
Example 6

Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the

value of the signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In
other words, the noise is so strong that the signal is
faint. For this channel the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = B log2 (1 + 0)

= B log2 (1) = B  0 = 0

61
Example 7

We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a

regular telephone line. A telephone line normally has
a bandwidth of 3000 Hz (300 Hz to 3300 Hz). The
signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this channel
the capacity is calculated as

C = B log2 (1 + SNR) = 3000 log2 (1 + 3162)

= 3000 log2 (3163)
C = 3000  11.62 = 34,860 bps

62
Transmission Impairment
• Types of impairment

63
 Attenuation
• Attenuation of a signal means loss of energy through resistance
of the medium. Amplifiers are used to compensate for this loss.
• The decibel(dB) measures the relative strengths of two signals or
a signal at two different points.

dB=10log10 (P2/P1)

where P1 and P2 are the powers of the signal at points 1 and 2

respectively.

• dB is negative if a signal is attenuated and positive if the signal is

amplified.

64
Attenuation

65
Distortion

• Distortion means that

the signal changes its form
or shape. It occurs on a
composite signal made of
different frequencies.
• Each signal component has
its own propagation speed
and therefore its own delay
in arriving at the final
destination.

66
 Noise
Several types of noise such as thermal noise, induced noise,
crosstalk, and impulse noise may corrupt the signal.
• Thermal noise is the random motion of electrons in a wire
which creates an extra signal not originally sent by the
transmitter.
• Induced noise comes from sources such as motors and
appliances
• Crosstalk is the effect of one wire on the other.
• Impulse noise is a spike (a signal with high energy in a very
short period of time) that comes from power lines,
lightning and so on.
67
Noise

68
More about signals
 Throughput is the measurement of how fast data can pass
through an entity (such as a point or a network).
 Propagation speed measures the distance a signal can
travel through a medium in one second. This depends on
the medium and the frequency. Light is propagated in a
vacuum with a speed of 3*108 m/s. It is lower in air and
much lower in a cable.
 Propagation time measures the time required for a signal
(or a bit) to travel from one point in the medium to
another.
 Wavelength is the distance a simple signal (sine wave) can
travel in one period.
 Wavelength=Propagation speed x Period= Propagation
speed/Frequency( λ=c/f )
69
Throughput

70
Propagation time

71
Assessment

1. Mention the difference of Data and Signal!

2. Determine the value of the amplitude, frequency, period and
phase of sin wave below

3. Represent this signal into the frequency domain!

72
4. A periodic composite signal has a bandwidth of 1500 Hz is
composed of two sine waves. The first wave has a
frequency of 250 Hz with a maximum amplitude of 20 V
while the second wave has a maximum amplitude of 8 V.
Draw the frequency domain representation of the signal!

5. Some electromagnetic waves (with c = 3x108) have such

specifications in the table. Fill in the blank part of the table:

73