2 - Structure of The Atom - Rutherford Model

Structure of the Atom
Learning Objectives
Student is expected to be able to:
• state a brief history of the idea of atom.
• discuss Rutherford model of atom.
• outline Geiger – Marsden experiments.
• derive Rutherford scattering formula.
• solve problems using Rutherford model of atom.
• discuss the difficulties faced Rutherford’s model of atom.
Figures and details in this presentation are taken from: Essentials of Modern Physics by Virgilio Acosta and others,
Professor Rick Trebino (www.physics.gatech.edu/frog), Physics for Scientists and Engineers by Serway, 5 th Ed & 6th
Ed, and many websites like physicsclassroom.com and HyperPhysics.com
Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

History of the Atom Timeline

Ernest Rutherford’s (1871-1937)
Where exactly are those electrons?
Thomson’s Theory: “Plum Pudding”
 electrons embedded in a positive

pudding.
Rutherford’s idea:
 Shoot something at them to see where they are.
Because, he thought the mass was
evenly distributed in the atom.
-- --
-- --
-- - --
-- -
--
-- --
-- --
-- - --
-- -- --
-- --
-- --
--
https://youtu.be/1EdTw4I6L0U?t=2
Rutherford’s has an idea…
What if I shoot alpha radiation at
gold atoms in gold foil?
Fluorescent
Screen
Gold Foil
Lead
Uranium
block
What He was Expecting
beam of alpha particles
radioactive
substance
fluorescent screen
circular - ZnS coated
gold foil
 The alpha particles to pass through without changing direction

very much.
 Because: The positive charges were spread out evenly. Alone they
were not enough to stop the alpha particles.
What He Got
He said this is like firing “a 15-inch shell at a piece of a

tissue paper and it came back and hit you”
Failure of Thomson’s Model
Large deflections could not be explained by Thomson’s model
The conservation of momentum and energy for an

elastic collision dictate that the angle must be less than 90 If the
projectile is more massive than the target. But in the
Rutherford scattering experiment, Geiger and Marsden showed
that 1 in 8000 alpha particles scattered with angle > 90.
Electrons Can’t Back-scatter α Particles
Before After
Calculate the maximum scattering angle corresponding to the

maximum momentum change.
It can be shown that the maximum
momentum transfer to the a particle is:

Electrons Can’t Back-scatter α Particles
It can be shown that the maximum
momentum transfer to the a particle is:
Determine qmax by letting Δpmax be perpendicular to the direction

of motion:
too small!
Try multiple scattering from electrons
If an a particle is scattered by
N electrons from statistical
theory the net deflection:
N = the number of atoms across the thin gold layer of

thickness t = 0.6 m:
still too small!

In the scattering experiment Rutherford saw some
electrons being bounced back at 180.
Hence, Thomson plum-pudding model fails in the light of these

experimental result
New Atomic Model: Planetary Model
https://youtu.be/B-k_kMwB1zM?t=143
Experimental results were not consistent with Thomson’s atomic

model.
Scattering of particles by a dense,

positively charged nucleus.
Rutherford’s Gold-Leaf Experiment
Conclusions:
Atom is mostly empty space
Nucleus has (+) charge
Electrons float around nucleus
Dorin, Demmin, Gabel, Chemistry The Study of Matter , 3rd Edition, 1990, page 120

Rutherford’s Conclusion (1911)…
Small, dense, positive nucleus.
Equal amounts of (-) electrons at

large distances outside the
nucleus.
The Planetary Model of Atom
Rutherford’s Thin Foil Experiment
Experiments done in 1911. A beam of positively charged
alpha particles hit and are scattered from a thin foil target

Experiments of Geiger & Marsden
Rutherford, Geiger, and Marsden conceived a new technique for
investigating the structure of matter by scattering a particles from atoms.
Geiger showed that many a particles were scattered from thin

gold-leaf targets at backward angles greater than 90°.
Theory: Impact Parameter
Scattering experiments help us study matter too small to be
observed directly. There’s a relationship between the impact
parameter b and the scattering angle q.
𝐷 
𝑏= 𝑐𝑜𝑡
2 2

Theory: Impact Parameter
When b is small, r is small. the Coulomb force is large.

θ can be large and the particle can be repelled
backward.
Rutherford Scattering Trajectory
𝐷 
𝑏= 𝑐𝑜𝑡
2 2
cot
  

Example (PHYCS 102)
In a head on collision, how close does the moving sphere, of mass 1.5 g
with q2 = +2.8 C, get to a fixed sphere with q1= +7.8C?

Distance of Closest Approach
The distance of closest
approach to the nucleus in a Coulomb potential
head-on collision D is a 1 Z1Z 2 e2
convenient parameter. It is K  m02 V (r ) 
2 (4 0 )r
the distance from the
nucleus where the initial
kinetic energy of  particle D
is equal to the electrostatic
potential energy:
At D the  particle
comes to stop and then
reverse its direction of
motion.
Example
In 1919, Rutherford was able to show that for 7.7-MeV -particles scattered
at large angles from aluminum nuclei (Z = 13). Estimate the radius of the
aluminum nucleus from these facts.
Solution Coulomb potential

When the particle is at 1
K  m02 Z1Z 2 e2
the point of closest 2
V (r ) 
(4 0 )r
approach to the aluminum
nucleus in a head-on
D
collision, its kinetic
energy is zero and it is at
a distance D which we
may take to be the radius
of the aluminum nucleus.

Theory: Cross Section for Scattering
Any particle inside the circle of area  b02 will be

scattered at angles greater than 0.
The cross section s = p b2 is related to the probability for

a particle being scattered by a nucleus.
Theory: Number of Scattering Nuclei
The number of scattering nuclei (t = foil thickness)
per unit volume is:
Where  Is the density, Na is

Avogadro’s number, and M is the
atomic weight.
The number of scattering nuclei per unit area is:

Theory: Target Area
Considering the area of the foil is A , the
thickness of the foil t, and the number of nuclei
per unit volume of the foil n.
 Let  = b2 be the cross-sectional

area surrounding each nucleus.
 The total number of nuclei in the

foil = n t A.
The total area targeted during scattering is called the

target area:

Theory: Fraction of Scattered  Particles
The fraction of incident -particles that will
be scattered through an angle   is equal to
the ratio of the total target area to the total
area of the foil:

Example
The kinetic energy of the  particles in Geiger-Marsden experiment was 7.7
MeV. What fraction of  particles are deflected by an angle of 90or more if
the thickness of the gold foil is 1 m? State how many  particles are
deflected by 90 or greater? Au = 19.3 g/cm3 , Z Au = 79, NA = 6.02×1023
atom/mol, and atomic weight M Au = 197 g/mole
Solution
One  particle in 25,000 is deflected by 90 or greater.

Rutherford Scattering Formula
In actual experiments, a
detector is positioned from θ
to θ + dθ that corresponds to
incident particles between b
and b + db:
The number of particles that will be

scattered within a cone between angle 
and +d is given by:

Now if Ni is the total
incident number of the -
particles, then only Ni df
are scattered between  and
 + d and received on the
shaded area dA given as:
The number of particles N() scattered onto a unit area at angle  is:

The number of particles scattered per unit area at angle  is:

Geiger-Marsden Data on Alpha Scattering

Another Experimental
Evidence
1 MeV protons
scattering off gold foil.
Note the correct
dependence on
scattering angle.

Example
Calculate the fraction per mm2 area of 7.7 MeV  particles scattered at 45
from gold foil of thickness 2.1 10-7 m at a distance of 1.0 cm from the target.
Au = 19.3 g/cm3 , Z Au = 79, NA = 6.02×1023 atom/mol, and atomic weight M
Au = 197 g/mole.
Solution
This calculation is in very good agreement with the experimental

result (3.7×10-7 mm-2) found by Geiger and Marsden in 1913.
Experimental Evidence
1- The angular dependence was tested, using foils of Ag and Au, the
experimental data remained proportional to the theoretical angular
distribution.
2- The quantity N() was found indeed to be proportional to the

thickness t of the foil for all the elements investigated.
3- Rutherford equation predicts that the number of scattered 

particles will be inversely proportional to the square of their kinetic
energy. This was tested by using  particles from several different
radioactive sources and the predicted energy dependence was
confirmed experimentally over an available energy variation.
4- Rutherford equation predicts N() to be proportional to (Ze)2, the

square of the nuclear charge. At the time Z was known for the various
atom. Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022
The Classical Atomic Model
• Consider an atom as a planetary system.
For Hydrogen Z = 1
• The Newton’s 2nd Law force of attraction
on the electron by the nucleus (proton) is:
where v is the tangential velocity of the electron:
The total energy is then:

This is negative, so the
system is bound, which is
good.
Example
The electron of a hydrogen atom is at a distance 5.3×10 -11 m from the
nucleus (proton). If the charge of the nucleus is 1.6×10 -19 C, then the
electrostatic potential energy (in electron volt (eV)) of the electron is:
(A) Zero
(B) 27.2
(C) -27.2
(D) 1.5
(E) -1.5

Quiz
Consider the Rutherford planetary model of hydrogen atom shown in
the figure, calculate the total energy of the system, the speed of the
electron, its angular frequency, and its radial acceleration.
R = 5.3×10-11 m

Failure of the Classical model
From classical E&M theory, an

accelerated electric charge
radiates energy (electromagnetic
radiation), which means the total
energy must decrease. So the
radius r must decrease!!
Electron crashes
into the nucleus!?
CLASSICAL PHYSICS CAN’T GIVE US STABLE ATOMS.

Failure of the Classical model
Solution
2
From Newton ' s 2nd Law : F  ma  m
r
e
From Coloumb ' s law : F 
4 0 r 21 e 2 m v2
e2 Fe  2
  mar
a 
4 0 mr 2
,
4 0 r r
e2
Total energy of the electron : E  
8 0 r
dE e2 dr
 
dt 8 0 r dt
2
dE 1 e 2a 2
 
dt 6 0 c 3
2
e2dr 1 e2  e2 
   3  2 
8 0 r dt
2
6 0 c  4 0 mr 
dr 1 e4 2 1 e4
   r dr   dt
dt 12 2 02 m 2 r 2 c 3 12 2 02 m2 c3
0 t 210 10
1 e4 r03 1 e4
 r dr   12 
2
dt   t
2
 02 m2 c3 3 0
12 2  02 m 2 c3
r0 0
1.6 10  t 19 4
 2 10  10 3

4 2  8.85  10 12   9.1110   3 10 
2 31 2 8 3
306.55 10 76

8  10  56
t  9.46  1021 t
6.93  10
 t  8.46  10 10 s  0.85 ns
Calculate the time interval over which the electron reaches r = 0,
starting from r0 = 2.0 Å.
Solution
2
From Newton ' s 2nd Law : F  ma  m
r
e
From Coloumb ' s law : F 
4 0 r 2
e2
a  ,
4 0 mr 2
e2
Total energy of the electron : E  
8 0 r
dE e2 dr
 
dt 8 0 r dt
2
dE 1 e 2a 2
  
dt 6 0 c 3
2
e2dr 1 e2  e2 
   3  2 
8 0 r dt
2
6 0 c  4 0 mr 
dr 1 e4 2 1 e4
   r dr   dt
dt 12 2 02 m 2 r 2 c 3 12 2  02 m2 c3
0 t 210 10
1 e4 r3 1 e4
 
2
r dr   dt  0  t
12 2 02 m2c3 3 0
12 2 02 m2 c3
r0 0
1.6  10  t 19 4
 2  10  
10 3
4  8.85  10   9.11 10   3  10 
2 12 2 31 2 8 3
6.55  10 76 CLASSICAL PHYSICS CAN’T GIVE US

8  10 30  t  9.46  10 t 21
6.93  10 56
STABLE ATOMS.
 t  8.46  10 10 s  0.85 ns
Difficulties with the Rutherford Model
• Rutherford’s electrons are undergoing a
centripetal acceleration
– It should radiate electromagnetic waves of the same
frequency
– The radius should steadily decrease as this radiation
is given off
– The electron should eventually spiral into the nucleus
It doesn’t!
The Planetary Model is Doomed

Difficulties with the Rutherford Model
• Atoms emit certain discrete characteristic frequencies of
electromagnetic radiation
– The Rutherford model is unable to explain this phenomena.
The Planetary Model is Doomed

Departure From Rutherford Formula
The mutual Coulomb repulsion of
an alpha particle and a target
nucleus give rise to a predictable
trajectory and led to the
development of the
Rutherford formula. As the
Geiger-Marsden data shows, the
data are in agreement with the
formula for a wide range of angles.
With high enough alpha energies,

however, the projectile punches
in close enough to the nuclear
center to come into range of the
nuclear strong force and the
distribution of scattered alphas
departs from the Rutherford
formula.
Nuclear Density
Various types of scattering experiments suggest that nuclei are
roughly spherical and appear to have essentially the same density.
The data are summarized in the expression called the Fermi model:
where r is the radius of the

nucleus of mass number A.
The assumption of constant
density leads to a nuclear
density:

2 - Structure of The Atom - Rutherford Model

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

2 - Structure of The Atom - Rutherford Model

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Structure of the Atom

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Where exactly are those electrons?

Thomson’s Theory: “Plum Pudding”

 electrons embedded in a positive

 The alpha particles to pass through without changing direction

He said this is like firing “a 15-inch shell at a piece of a

The conservation of momentum and energy for an

Calculate the maximum scattering angle corresponding to the

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Determine qmax by letting Δpmax be perpendicular to the direction

N = the number of atoms across the thin gold layer of

still too small!

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Hence, Thomson plum-pudding model fails in the light of these

Experimental results were not consistent with Thomson’s atomic

Scattering of particles by a dense,

Nucleus has (+) charge

Electrons float around nucleus

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Small, dense, positive nucleus.

Equal amounts of (-) electrons at

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Geiger showed that many a particles were scattered from thin

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

When b is small, r is small. the Coulomb force is large.

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Solution Coulomb potential

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Any particle inside the circle of area  b02 will be

The cross section s = p b2 is related to the probability for

Where  Is the density, Na is

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

 Let  = b2 be the cross-sectional

 The total number of nuclei in the

The total area targeted during scattering is called the

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

One  particle in 25,000 is deflected by 90 or greater.

The number of particles that will be

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

The number of particles scattered per unit area at angle  is:

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

This calculation is in very good agreement with the experimental

2- The quantity N() was found indeed to be proportional to the

3- Rutherford equation predicts that the number of scattered 

4- Rutherford equation predicts N() to be proportional to (Ze)2, the

where v is the tangential velocity of the electron:

The total energy is then:

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

Dr. Khalil Ebrahim, PHYCS 324, 2nd Semester 2021-2022

From classical E&M theory, an

CLASSICAL PHYSICS CAN’T GIVE US STABLE ATOMS.

1.6 10  t 19 4

306.55 10 76

6.55  10 76 CLASSICAL PHYSICS CAN’T GIVE US

The Planetary Model is Doomed