PRESENTED BY – RAJNISH JACKSON

INDORE NURSING COLLEGE

 Cancer Screening

Certain tests help find specific types of cancer before signs

or symptoms appear. This is called screening. The main
goals of cancer screening are to:-

 Reduce the number of people who die from the disease, or

prevent deaths from cancer altogether
 Reduce the number of people who develop the disease
 Types of screening tests

 Each type of cancer has its own screening tests. Some types of cancer
currently do not have an effective screening method. Developing new
cancer screening tests is an area of active research.
 Breast cancer

 Mammography. Mammography is a type of x-ray specifically

designed to view the breast. The images produced by mammography
can show tumors or irregularities in the breast. These images are called
mammograms.
 Cont.
 Clinical breast examination. A medical professional looks and feels
for any changes in the breast’s size or shape. The examiner also looks
for changes in the skin of the breasts and nipples.
 Cont.

 Breast self-examination. During this exam, a woman looks and

feels for changes in her own breasts. If she notices any changes, she
should see a doctor.
 Cont.

 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). An MRI is not regularly used

to screen for breast cancer. But it may be helpful for women with a
higher risk of breast cancer, those with dense breasts, or when a lump
is found during a breast exam.
 Cervical cancer

 Human papillomavirus (HPV) testing. Cells are scraped from the

outside of a woman’s cervix. These cells are tested for specific strains
of HPV. Some strains of HPV are more strongly linked to an increased
risk of cervical cancer. This test may be done alone or combined with
a Pap test. An HPV test may also be done on a sample of cells from a
woman’s vagina that she can collect herself.
 Pap test. This test also uses cells from the outside of a woman's
cervix. A pathologist then identifies any precancerous or cancerous
cells. A Pap test may be combined with HPV testing.
 Colorectal cancer
 Colonoscopy. During this procedure, the doctor inserts a flexible, lighted
tube called a colonoscope into the rectum. The doctor is able to check the
entire colon for polyps or cancer.
 Sigmoidoscopy. The doctor uses a flexible, lighted tube called a 
sigmoidoscope to check the lower colon for polyps and cancer. The doctor
cannot check the upper part of the colon with this test.
 Fecal occult blood test (FOBT). This test finds blood in the feces, or stool,
which can be a sign of polyps or cancer. There are two types FOBT: guaiac
and immunochemical.
 Cont.
 Double contrast barium enema. This is an x-ray of the colon and
rectum. The barium enema helps the outline of the colon and rectum
stand out on the x-rays. Doctors use this test to screen people who
cannot have a colonoscopy.
 Stool DNA tests. This test analyzes DNA from a person’s stool sample
to look for cancer. It uses DNA changes found in polyps and cancers to
help a doctor decide if a colonoscopy is needed.
 Head and neck cancers

 General health screening exam. The doctor looks in the nose, mouth,

and throat for abnormalities and feels for lumps in the neck. Regular
dental check-ups are also important to screen for head and neck
cancers.
 Lung cancer

 Low-dose helical or spiral computed tomography CT scan.

  A CT scan takes x-rays of the inside of the body from different
angles. A computer then combines these images into a detailed, 3-
dimensional image that shows any abnormalities or tumors.
 Prostate cancer
 Digital rectal examination (DRE). A DRE is a test in which the
doctor inserts a gloved lubricated finger into a man’s rectum and feels
the surface of the prostate for any irregularities.
 Prostate-specific antigen (PSA) test. This blood test measures the
level of a substance called PSA. PSA is usually found at higher-than-
normal levels in men with prostate cancer. But a high PSA level may
also be a sign of conditions that are not cancerous.
 Skin cancer

 Complete skin exam. A doctor checks the skin for signs of skin
cancer.
 Cont.
 Skin self-examination. People examine their entire body in a mirror
for signs of skin cancer. It often helps to have another person check the
scalp and back of the neck.
 Cont.

 Dermoscopy. A doctor uses a handheld device to evaluate the size,

shape, and pigmentation patterns of skin lesions. Dermoscopy is
usually used for the early detection of melanoma
 Risks of screening

 Screening tests can help doctors find a cancer at an earlier, more treatable
stage. This may help improve survival. But cancer screening also has a
number of risks. These risks include:
 Over diagnosis. Screening tests may find slow-growing cancers that would
not have caused any harm during a person's lifetime. As a result, some
people may receive potentially harmful, painful, stressful, and/or expensive
treatments that they did not need.
 False positives. Sometimes a screening test will suggest that a person has
cancer when they do not.
 Increased testing. Doctors may run additional tests that a person may not
need because of over diagnosis and false positives. These tests can be
physically invasive, costly, and can cause unnecessary stress and worry.
 False reassurance. Sometimes a screening test will suggest a person does
not have cancer when they actually do. As a result, a person may not get the
treatment he or she needs.
 Screening recommendations

 A number of organizations provide guidelines on cancer screening

tests. Sometimes these guidelines suggest different things.
Recommendations vary on:
 Which type of cancer people should be screened for
 Which tests should be used to screen for a particular type of cancer
 What age screening should begin and end
 How often screening tests should be done
 What happens if the screening shows positive results?
 Signs of Cancer
These are potential cancer symptoms:-

 Change in bowel or bladder habits

 A sore that does not heal
 Unusual bleeding or discharge
 Thickening or lump in the breast or elsewhere
 Indigestion or difficulty in swallowing
 Obvious change in a wart or mole
 Nagging cough or hoarseness
Classification
 Cancer Classification

 Cancers are classified in two ways: by the type of tissue in which

the cancer originates (histological type) and by primary site, or the
location in the body where the cancer first developed. This section
introduces you to the first method: cancer classification based on
histological type are grouped into six major categories:-
 Carcinoma
 Sarcoma
 Myeloma
 Leukemia
 Lymphoma
 Mixed Types
 Carcinoma

 Carcinoma refers to a malignant neoplasm of epithelial origin or cancer of

the internal or external lining of the body. Carcinomas, malignancies of epithelial
tissue, account for 80 to 90 percent of all cancer cases.
 Epithelial tissue is found throughout the body. It is present in the skin, as well as the
covering and lining of organs and internal passageways, such as the gastrointestinal
tract.
 Carcinomas are divided into two major subtypes: adenocarcinoma, which develops
in an organ or gland, and squamous cell carcinoma, which originates in the
squamous epithelium.
 Adenocarcinomas generally occur in mucus membranes and are first seen as a
thickened plaque-like white mucosa. They often spread easily through the soft
tissue where they occur. Squamous cell carcinomas occur in many areas of the body.
 Most carcinomas affect organs or glands capable of secretion, such as the breasts,
which produce milk, or the lungs, which secrete mucus,
or colon or prostate or bladder.
Carcinoma
 Sarcoma

 Sarcoma refers to cancer that originates in supportive and connective tissues such as bones,
tendons, cartilage, muscle, and fat. Generally occurring in young adults, the most common
sarcoma often develops as a painful mass on the bone. Sarcoma tumors usually resemble the
tissue in which they grow.

 Examples of sarcomas are:-

 Osteosarcoma or osteogenic sarcoma (bone)
 Chondrosarcoma (cartilage)
 Leiomyosarcoma (smooth muscle)
 Rhabdomyosarcoma (skeletal muscle)
 Mesothelial sarcoma or mesothelioma (membranous lining of body cavities)
 Fibrosarcoma (fibrous tissue)
 Angiosarcoma or hemangioendothelioma (blood vessels)
 Liposarcoma (adipose tissue)
 Glioma or astrocytoma (neurogenic connective tissue found in the brain)
 Myxosarcoma (primitive embryonic connective tissue)
 Mesenchymous or mixed mesodermal tumor (mixed connective tissue types)
Sarcoma
 Myeloma

 Myeloma is cancer that originates in the plasma cells of bone

marrow. The plasma cells produce some of the proteins found
in blood.
 Leukemia

 Leukemias ("liquid cancers" or "blood cancers") are cancers of the bone

marrow (the site of blood cell production). The word leukemia means
"white blood" in Greek. The disease is often associated with the
overproduction of immature white blood cells. These immature white
blood cells do not perform as well as they should, therefore the patient is
often prone to infection. Leukemia also affects red blood cells and can
cause poor blood clotting and fatigue due to anemia. Examples of
leukemia include:
 Myelogenous or granulocytic leukemia (malignancy of the myeloid and
granulocytic white blood cell series)
 Lymphatic, lymphocytic, or lymphoblastic leukemia (malignancy of the
lymphoid and lymphocytic blood cell series)
 Polycythemia vera or erythremia (malignancy of various blood cell
products, but with red cells predominating)
 Lymphoma
 Lymphomas develop in the glands or nodes of the lymphatic system,
a network of vessels, nodes, and organs (specifically the spleen,
tonsils, and thymus) that purify bodily fluids and produce infection-
fighting white blood cells, or lymphocytes.
 Unlike the leukemias which are sometimes called "liquid cancers,"
lymphomas are "solid cancers."
 Lymphomas may also occur in specific organs such as
the stomach, breast or brain. These lymphomas are referred to
as extranodal lymphomas. The type components may be within one
category or from different categories. Some examples are:-
 adenosquamous carcinoma
 mixed mesodermal tumor
 carcinosarcoma
 teratocarcinoma
Lymphoma
Leukemia
 Cancer Types by Site (primary sites)

 Medical professionals frequently refer to cancers based on their

histological type. However, the general public is more familiar
with cancer names based on their primary sites. The most common
sites in which cancer develops include:
 Skin
 Lungs
 Female Breasts
 Prostate
 Colon and Rectum
 Cervix and Uterus
 Skin

 There are three primary types of skin cancer: basal cell, squamous

cell, and melanoma. These cancers are derived from the epidermal
layers with the same names. Melanomas are derived from the
melanocytes, or pigment cells, in the deepest level of
the epidermis.
 Basal cell and squamous cell cancers usually occur on parts of the
body exposed to the sun, such as the face, ears, and extremities.
These cancers are highly curable, especially if detected and treated
early. Melanomas, which form dark moles that spread over the
surface of the skin, are more lethal because they metastasize very
quickly.
Skin
 Lung

 Lung cancer is very difficult to detect at an early stage because the

symptoms often do not appear until the disease has advanced. The
symptoms include persistent cough, sputum streaked
with blood, chest pain, and repeated attacks
of pneumonia or bronchitis.
 Female Breast

 Most breast cancers are ductal carcinomas. Women most likely to

develop the disease are those over the age of 50; those who have
already had cancer in one breast; those whose mother or sister had
breast cancer; those who never had children; and those who had their
first child after the age of 30. Other risk factors include obesity, a high-
fat diet, early menarche (age menstruation begins) and
late menopause (age menstruation ceases).
 Monthly breast self-examination is recommended as a way to detect
breast cancer early. Most of the lumps found in the breasts are not
cancerous, but women should see their physicians to find out for sure.
 Prostate

 Cancer of the prostate is found mainly in older men. As men age, the

prostate may enlarge and block the urethra or bladder. This may
cause difficulty in urination or interfere with sexual functions.
This condition is called benign prostatic hypertrophy (BPH). Although
BPH is not cancerous, surgery may be needed to correct it. The
symptoms of BPH, or of other problems in the prostate, may be
similar to symptoms for prostate cancer.

 Individuals should consult a physician if any of the following

symptoms appear: weak or interrupted flow of urine; urinating often
(especially at night); difficulty urinating; pain or burning during
urination; blood in the urine; or nagging pain in the back, hips,
or pelvis. Often there are no symptoms of early cancer of the
prostate.
Prostate
 Colon and Rectum
 Of the cancers that affect the large intestine, about 70 percent
occur in the colon and about 30 percent in the rectum. These
cancers are the third most common cancers overall. Symptoms
include blood in the stool, which can be tested for by a simple
fecal occult blood test, or a change in bowel habits, such as
severe constipation or diarrhea.
 Uterus (Corpus Uteri)

 Cancer of the uterus is the most common gynecologic malignancy. This

cancer occurs infrequently in women under 40 years of age. It occurs
most frequently after the age of 60. The presenting symptom is
usually abnormal uterine bleeding. An endometrial biopsy or D&C is
often performed to confirm the diagnosis.
 Currently, there has been little insight into the exact causes for uterine
cancer. However, 10-25 percent of malignancies occur in women who
received pelvic radiation five to 25 years earlier for benign bleeding. As
in other cancers of its type, risk factors for uterine cancer include
diabetes, hypertension, obesity, and improper estrogen levels.
 there are many other examples such as brain cancer, testicular cancer, 
bladder cancer, and so on.