PCC-FT503

Rescue Equipments & Techniques

Assist. Prof -KAMAL SHUKLA
 COURSE OBJECTIVES
1. To give basic concepts of Rescue in Ordinary as well as special situations in
Major Disasters.
2. To Understand the Respiratory and Non Respiratory Personal Protective
Equipments used by Rescuer in Emergencies.
3. To learn about various types of Fire Dynamics in Fire Scenario.
4. To understand the basic Fundamentals of Fire Propagation.
5. To understand the Chemistry and Physics of fire.
 MODULE 1
CHEMISTRY AND PHYSICS OF FIRE

Principles of Fire:
Fire- A rapid oxidation process, which is a chemical reaction resulting in the evolution of light and
heat in varying intensities. It is a chemical reaction in which a combustible material combines with
oxygen in the atmosphere to give out heat and flame. Fire is combustion accompanied by flame or
glow, which escapes its normal confines to cause damage. Fire is the heat and light of burning.

Fire is the rapid oxidation of a material (the fuel) in the exothermic chemical process of
combustion, releasing heat, light, and various reaction products. A state, process, or instance of
combustion in which fuel or other material is ignited and combined with oxygen, giving off light,
heat, and flame.
 FIRE TRIANGLE
The basic principles of fire and combustion can be represented by the fire triangle:

For fire to exist, three things must be present:

Fuel – a combustible material or substance that is consumed during the combustion process. In a
typical workplace, fuels can include paper and cardboard, wood and soft furnishings, structural
materials, petrol and diesel fuels, butane, acetylene and other gases, solvents and other
chemicals.

Oxygen – consumed during combustion when it is chemically combined with the fuel. Oxygen is
present in air at a concentration of 21%. During a fire oxygen can also come from other sources,
including certain oxygen-rich chemicals (usually called oxidizing agents), such as ammonium
nitrate.
Sources of ignition (heat) – a heat or ignition source is essential to start the combustion
process. Once combustion has started it generates its own heat which is usually sufficient to keep
the fire burning (in other words once the fire starts the heat source can be removed and the fire
stays alight). Some examples will be described later in this element.

Once a fire has started it will produce heat, a flame (the zone where oxygen and flammable
vapours are chemically combining in the combustion process) and smoke. The exact composition
of the smoke will vary but typically smoke is made up of hot combustion gases such as carbon
monoxide (CO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and small particles (soot).
 HEAT MEASUREMENT
Measurement of heat is done in calories. One calorie is the amount of energy required to raise
one gram of water one degree Celsius. To measure heat, you divide the change in temperature of
a sample of water by the mass of the water.As a form of energy, heat has the unit joule (J) in the
International System of Units (SI). However, in many applied fields in engineering the British
thermal unit (BTU) and the calorie are often used. The standard unit for the rate of heat
transferred is the watt (W), defined as one joule per second.

Heat released by a system into its surroundings is by convention a negative quantity (Q < 0); when
a system absorbs heat from its surroundings, it is positive (Q > 0). Heat transfer rate, or heat flow
per unit time, is denoted by Q. This should not be confused with a time derivative of a
function of state (which can also be written with the dot notation) since heat is not a function of
state.[16] Heat flux is defined as rate of heat transfer per unit cross-sectional area (units watts per
square metre)
Calorific Value is the parameter necessary for defining the energetic content of the materials;
it is referred to as the gross calorific value (GCV) or high heating value. Also represented as
the absolute value of the specific energy of combustion for a unit mass of a substance
(generally, solid biofuel or food). The unit of calorific value is KJ/kg (kilojoule per kilogram)
 HEAT TRANSFER
In general, heat transfer describes the flow of heat (thermal energy) due to temperature
differences and the subsequent temperature distribution and changes.

heat transfer, any or all of several kinds of phenomena, considered as mechanisms, that convey
energy and entropy from one location to another.

According to thermodynamic systems, heat transfer is defined as

The movement of heat across the border of the system due to a difference in temperature
between the system and its surroundings.
Interestingly, the difference in temperature is said to be a ‘potential’ that causes the transfer of
heat from one point to another. Besides, heat is also known as flux.
 TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
Heat can travel from one place to another in several ways. The different modes of heat transfer
include:
● Conduction
● Convection
● Radiation

Meanwhile, if the temperature difference exists between the two systems, heat will find a way to
transfer from the higher to the lower system.
 CONDUCTION
The process in which heat flows from objects with higher temperature to objects with lower
temperature.

An area of higher kinetic energy transfers thermal energy towards the lower kinetic energy area.
High-speed particles clash with particles moving at a slow speed, as a result, slow speed particles
increase their kinetic energy. This is a typical form of heat transfer and takes place through
physical contact. Conduction is also known as thermal conduction or heat conduction.

Conduction Examples
Following are the examples of conduction:
● Ironing of clothes is an example of conduction where the heat is conducted from the iron to
the clothes.
● Heat is transferred from hands to ice cube resulting in the melting of an ice cube when held
in hands.
 CONVECTION
The movement of fluid molecules from higher temperature regions to lower temperature
regions.

Convection is single or multiphase fluid flow that occurs spontaneously due to the combined
effects of material property heterogeneity and body forces on a fluid, most commonly density
and gravity.

Convection Examples
Examples of convection include:
● Boiling of water, that is molecules that are denser move at the bottom while the molecules
which are less dense move upwards resulting in the circular motion of the molecules so that
water gets heated.
● Warm water around the equator moves towards the poles while cooler water at the poles
moves towards the equator.
● Blood circulation in warm-blooded animals takes place with the help of convection, thereby
regulating the body temperature
 RADIATION
Radiant heat is present in some or other form in our daily lives. Thermal radiations are referred to
as radiant heat. Thermal radiation is generated by the emission of electromagnetic waves. These
waves carry away the energy from the emitting body. Radiation takes place through a vacuum or
transparent medium which can be either solid or liquid. Thermal radiation is the result of the
random motion of molecules in the matter. The movement of charged electrons and protons is
responsible for the emission of electromagnetic radiation. Let us know more about radiation heat
transfer.
Radiation heat transfer is measured by the device known as thermocouple. Thermocouple is used
for measuring the temperature. In this device sometimes, error takes place while measuring the
temperature through radiation heat transfer.

Radiation Example
Following are the examples of radiation:
● Microwave radiation emitted in the oven is an example of radiation.
● UV rays coming from the sun is an example of radiation.
 FIRE GROWTH
Fire growth is defined as an increase in the burning rate, or the rate at which fuel is vaporized in
a tire. It can manifest itself by an increase in the local burning rate (mass loss rate per unit area)
due to an increase in the heat flux of the fire.
 STAGES OF FIRE

1. INCIPIENT- An incipient fire is a flame that is still in its beginning stage. Fires in this initial
stage can be extinguished or controlled by portable firefighting equipment. Any fire that has
progressed to a point where visibility has been compromised by smoke, or structuring
firefighting is required, can no longer be called an incipient fire.

An incipient fire can be defined by the following factors:

● flames are small and aren’t widespread

● smoke allows visibility in the room
● the heat emitted from the flame is low (in comparison with later stages)
2. Growth

As we move through the phases of a fire, we come to the second stage – growth. The growth of a
fire will be affected by the structure of the building and the fuel available.

The growth phases are characterised by the following indicators:

● there are sufficient oxygen and fuel to support the ongoing growth of the flame
● a defined layer of smoke above the flame
● the temperature in the room increases
● condensation disappears from windows
● brown stains on window glaze may appear
● cracks in windows

It is between the growth and the fully developed stages of fire when a flashover occurs. A
flashover is defined as “the near-simultaneous ignition of most of the directly exposed combustible
material in an enclosed area.”
3. Fully Developed

After the flashover, the fire reaches the fully developed stage. Out of all the stages of fire growth, this
phase is where energy release is at its greatest. The temperature will be at its highest point (generally
somewhere between 700°-1200°C).

Fully developed fires can be identified by the following factors:

● darkened or black smoke

● dense smoke
● substantial heat
● blackened window glazing
● visible exterior flames
● flames obscured by smoke
4. Decay

During the final stages of fire, a flame will enter the decay phase. This stage occurs after the
fully developed flame starts to run out of fuel or oxygen. Fires can be forced into the decay
stage by reducing oxygen supply with firefighting equipment. Limiting the flame to one
compartment (or area) will help to contain the available fuel and growth of the fire. It is
critical during this phase to limit the fire’s access to combustible material and oxygen. Even if
a fire appears to be out, there is a chance of reignition when the right materials are available.
 HEAT RELEASE RATE
Heat Release Rate (HRR) is the rate at which fire releases energy - this is also known as
power. HRR is measured in units of Watts (W), which is an International System unit equal to one
Joule per second.

Heat release rate (HRR) is the rate of heat generation by fire. It is typically measured in Joules
per second or Watts, since the output of a fire can generate more than a watt. For easier
quantification, megawatts or kilowatts are used.
 FUEL LOAD
The total amount of combustible material in a defined space. Fuel load is quantified in heat units
or in its equivalent weight in wood. Excessive fuel load for what would normally be expected in a
space of that type can be an indicator of incendiary fire (a perpetrator attempted to accelerate fire
spread and burning by moving combustible materials into the fire area).

Calculation- Multiply the total tons of fuel X the percent of fuel available to determine how
many tons of fuel available to burn on each acre. Multiply the tons per acre of available fuel X the
number of acres in the burn unit to determine the total available tons of fuel (the fuel that will be
consumed during the prescribed burn).
 CLASSIFICATION OF FIRE
According to IS 2190:

1. Class A fires—Fires involving solid combustible materials of organic nature such as wood,
paper, rubber, plastics, etc, where the cooling effect of water is essential for extinction of
fires.
2. Class B fires—Fires involving flammable liquids or liquefiable solids or the like where a
blanketing effect is essential.
3. Class C fires—Fires involving flammable gases under pressure including liquefied gases,
where it is necessary to inhibit the burning gas at fast rate with an inert gas, powder or
vaporising liquid for extinguishment.
4. Class D fires—Fires involving combustible metals, such as magnesium, aluminium, zinc,
sodium, potassium, etc, when the burring metals are reactive to water and water containing
agents and in certain cases carbon dioxide, halogenated hydrocarbons and ordinary dry
powders. These fires require special media and techniques to extinguish.
 THEORY OF FIRE EXTINGUISHMENT

The basic elements of fire are represented by the fire tetrahedron - HEAT, FUEL,
OXYGEN and CHAIN REACTION. The theory of fire extinguishment is based on
removing any one or more of the four elements in the fire tetrahedron to suppress
the fire.
REMOVING THE HEAT

In order to remove the heat, something must be applied to the fire to absorb the heat
or act as a heat exchanger. Water is not the only agent used to accomplish this, but it
is the most common. A more detailed discussion of how to apply water on a fire and
some theories regarding its use as an extinguishing agent will be covered in a later
section.

REMOVING THE FUEL

Under many circumstances, it is not practical to attempt to remove the fuel from the
fire. When dealing with flammable liquid fires, valves can be shut off and storage
vessels pumped to safe areas to help eliminate the supply of fuel to the fire.
Flammable gas fires are completely extinguished by shutting off the fuel supply.
REMOVE THE OXYGEN

Oxygen as it exists in our atmosphere (21%) is sufficient to support combustion in most fire
situations. Removal of the air or oxygen can be accomplished by separating it from the fuel
source or by displacing it with an inert gas. Examples of separation would be foam on a
flammable liquid fire, a wet blanket on a trash fire, or a tight fitting lid on a skillet fire.
Agents such as CO2, nitrogen, and steam are often used to displace the oxygen.

INTERRUPT THE CHAIN REACTION

Modern extinguishing agents, such as dry chemical and halons, have proven to be effective
on various fires even though these agents do not remove heat, fuel, or oxygen. Dry
chemical and halogenated agents are thought to suspend or bond with “free radicals” that
are created in the combustion process and thus prevent them from continuing the chain
reaction. A more detailed study of this phenomenon is available from the NFPA Fire
Protection Handbook and various manufacturers of special fire extinguishing agents.
 THEORY OF EXTINGUISHMENT WITH WATER
Water has a higher specific heat than most common substances, and this is one of the
reasons it is such an effective extinguishing agent. ... Smaller water droplets have larger
surface area to mass of water, which means each droplet has more surface to absorb heat
energy while having less water to heat up.

By absorbing a very large amount of heat during vaporization, water draws energy from the
fire site and thus cools it down until the fire goes out! The simple answer to this question
would be: Water cools the fire site and thus extinguishes the fire.

Water performs two of these functions: its conversion to steam absorbs heat, and the
steam displaces the air from the vicinity of the flame.
 THEORY OF EXTINGUISHMENT WITH FOAM
All mechanical foams extinguish fires through physical means. The foam blanket or film
secures vapors coming off of the fuel surface, the foam concentrate is mixed with water prior
to being expanded and therefore has excellent cooling characteristics additionally mechanical
foams will separate the fuel from air. Foam agents are the only agents that may be applied to
a flammable liquid to prevent ignition by suppressing the release of vapors from the fuel
surface. Mechanical foams used by themselves are ineffective on gaseous fires, flammable
liquids under pressure, three dimensional fires and fires involving liquids in motion. On class A
fires, the surfactants that are added to the water solution tend to reduce the surface tension of
the water, allowing better penetration, less run-off and more efficient cooling. In order for
mechanical foams to work properly, they must be mixed or proportioned correctly with water,
injected with air to achieve expansion (form bubbles) and be applied correctly to the fire
surface. Foam proportioning involves mixing foam concentrate with water to form foam
solution.
 THEORY OF EXTINGUISHMENT WITH DCP
For class B fires, all dry chemicals rely on particle size and decomposition to accomplish
extinguishment. Theoretically, the smaller the particle size, the more effective the chemical will be as an
extinguishing agent. Particle sizes on the average of 20 to 25 microns are said to be best, however,
smaller particles pack too easily and are not practical for use in a hand portable. Dry Chemicals can be
found with particle sizes ranging from 10 to 75 microns. The relationship of particle size to extinguishing
effectiveness implies that the surface area of Dry Chemical agents plays a key role in extinguishing a
fire. Some "smothering" action occurs when Dry Chemical is decomposed in a flame front and produces
CO2.

It is generally recognized that while CO2 is formed during the extinguishment process, however, the
quantity of CO2 being generated is so small as to be insignificant in comparison with other factors.
Cooling also takes place as the Dry Chemical decomposes. Water vapor is formed as a product of
decomposition and the solid particles act as a barrier between the fuel surface and the radiant heat
formed by the flames in the vapor space above the liquid fuel. This barrier prevents the radiant heat from
returning to the fuel surface and continuing ignition. As with the "smothering" action, while some cooling
is taking place through the formation of water vapor and the creation of a particle barrier, this cooling
action alone is not considered significant enough to extinguish the fire.
THEORY OF EXTINGUISHMENT WITH HALOGENATED
Halogenated agents suppress fire by interrupting the chemical chain reaction in the
combustion process, working in the fire chemically instead of physically. Exactly how this
"chain breaking" process works is not completely understood. It is generally agreed that
bromine is released from the agent as it decomposes in the fire carrying away the "free
radicals" that cause the combustion and releasing more bromine to continue the "chain
breaking" process. Many of these halogenated agents, halon 1301 and 1211 specifically,
are identified as ozone-depleting agents and are subject to control under the Montreal
Protocol and other Federal requirements. NFPA 10 and 12A have specific requirements
for reclaiming these agents and preventing their release into the atmosphere under non-
fire conditions. For more information on how to accomplish this consult the
manufacturer’s service, maintenance and recharge manual for the equipment and agent
involved. The primary advantage of halogenated agents has been the lack of clean up
required after using the agent.
 Special Case of Fire Extinguishment
Wet Chemical extinguishers work on Class “K” fires through two methods. The solution
is alkaline in nature and therefore reacts with the free fatty acids in the cooking medium
to form a soapy foam on top of the burning material. This secures the vapors and cools
the cooking medium as the foam drains out and converts to steam. This reaction is
called saponification. In addition to saponification, the agent is discharged as a fine
mist. This mist does not submerge below the surface of the cooking medium
(preventing a steam explosion) but rather it converts to steam on the surface pulling
heat out of the material. Cooking media fires must be cooled below their auto ignition
point in order to successfully extinguish the fire. The requirement for cooling the
cooking media below its auto-ignition temperature stresses the importance of
automatic shut off of heat sources to appliances when pre engineered systems
activate. Without removal of the heat source to the appliance, the fire will reflash.
 MODULE 2
FIRE PROPAGATION

Flame spread in solids and liquid- Flame spread is the sliding movement of the flaming ignition
point over the surface of a solid combustible. Thus, the flame foot provides the ignition source as
well as mixing of volatiles and air. The quasi steady time response of the material to heat flux
distribution from the flame and external sources in reaching the surface temperature of rapid
volatilizations (coinciding with a point of ignition at around 300 °C depending on the wood species)
determines the rate of flame spread. Rate of flame spread generally decreases with increases in
density, moisture content, surface emissivity, surface temperature at ignition, and
thermal conductivity. It increases with the magnitude of heat exposure from the flame. This makes
upward or ceiling flame spread (along the airflow direction) a serious fire safety issue because of
the accelerating potential of room flashover with the attendant high rate of heat release and
smoke and toxic gas production. In contrast, downward or lateral flame spread (opposite to airflow
direction) has heating from the adjoining flame of such a small extent that external heat sources
are required to sustain the flame spreading on wood products.
 3D FIRE PROPAGATION
A three-dimensional fire is a liquid-fuel fire in which the fuel is being discharged from an
elevated or pressurized source, creating a pool of fuel on a lower surface. Foam is not effective
at controlling three-dimensional flowing fires.Pools of finite width and length are studied in air
channels of prescribed height and width, thereby requiring a three-dimensional space resolution in
order to capture the effects at the edge of the pool and at the side walls of the air channel. The
effects of variations in surface tension due to surface temperature variations and of buoyancy in
both the liquid and gas phases are considered
 SMOKE
According to NFPA, The airborne solid and liquid particulates and gases evolved when a
material undergoes pyrolysis or combustion, together with the quantity of air that is
entrained or otherwise mixed into the mass.

Smoke is a collection of tiny unburnt particles – very small carbon particles and tiny droplets of tar.

Smoke is a collection of tiny solid, liquid and gas particles. Although smoke can contain hundreds
of different chemicals and fumes, visible smoke is mostly carbon (soot), tar, oils and ash.

Smoke occurs when there is incomplete combustion (not enough oxygen to burn the fuel
completely). In complete combustion, everything is burned, producing just water and carbon
dioxide. When incomplete combustion occurs, not everything is burned. Smoke is a collection of
these tiny unburned particles. Each particle is too small to see with your eyes, but when they
come together, you see them as smoke.
 CONSTITUENTS OF SMOKE
Depending on the fuel that is being burned smoke can contain a wide variety of different
components. Generally speaking, smoke always contains carbon, oils, and ash as they are what
makes smoke visible. In a fire containing only wood, the smoke created contains
volatile organic compounds that evaporate from the wood. The smoke also contains carbon (the
main component of the wood), water vapour, and minerals that existed in the tree's cells such as
calcium, potassium, and magnesium. Since these minerals do not burn, they make up the ash that
is also produced. Any other substances, such as plastics, that are burned introduce hazardous
chemicals to the smoke that depend strongly on the composition of the substance itself.
Smoke from cigarettes is much more complex in its composition, and often carcinogenic. It can
include chemical components such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen cyanide, nitrogen oxides,
formaldehyde, benzene, nicotine, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.
 SMOKE PRODUCTION RATE
A characteristic of combustion that quantifies the amount of smoke produced by a surface area of
one square meter of material per second.
 QUALITY OF SMOKE

All smoke contains carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and particulate matter (PM or soot). ...
Smoke can contain many different chemicals, including aldehydes, acid gases, sulfur dioxide,
nitrogen oxides, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), benzene, toluene, styrene, metals and
dioxins.

The biggest health threat from smoke is from fine particles. These microscopic particles can
penetrate deep into your lungs. They can cause a range of health problems, from burning eyes
and a runny nose to aggravated chronic heart and lung diseases. Exposure to particle pollution is
even linked to premature death.
 SMOKE DENSITY
The ratio of (a) the smoke emitted by a burning material to (b) the smoke emitted by a standard
material.

The Smoke Density Chamber is used to measure propensity of building materials to generate
smoke when exposed to a heat source. The smoke propensity is quantified by measuring the
obscuration of a light beam traveling through the smoke generated within the chamber.
 VISIBILITY IN SMOKE
Smoke visibility and obscuration are critical outputs of a fire simulation. ... Visibility is the
distance that an observer can identify an object relative to the background and obscuration is the
amount that light intensity is reduced as it passes through smoke.

Smoke obscuration is measured via the fraction of white (i.e. nonmonochromatic) light
transmitted horizontally above the combustion chamber. Samples are normally exposed in
the vertical orientation.
 PRINCIPLE OF SPREADING QUANTITY OF SMOKE
As a fire begins to spread, the amount of smoke that is produced increases rapidly by the minute.
This can cause impairments such as clouded vision and disorientation, which can be detrimental
as you look to make your escape.Smoke spreads very quickly in all directions, which means that
you only have a limited amount of time to get to safety. Otherwise, you risk smoke inhalation,
which can be compared to the feeling of drowning. You will also find it more difficult to breathe, as
the amount of oxygen inside a building decreases heavily as a fire continues to burn.

As a fire burns, smoke and deadly gases such as carbon monoxide begin to fill the air rapidly. The
smoke is full of burnt particles from the combusted material – often containing harmful chemicals.

Smoke moves vertically and horizontally through the air, while trapping any air in the corners and
crevices of rooms. For that reason, you should never consider installing a smoke alarm close to
the edges of ceilings or roof pitches.
There is vertical as well as horizontal motion in the atmosphere. Stability is an indication of how
rapidly vertical mixing is taking place. The more unstable the atmosphere, the more quickly smoke
is lifted and dispersed. The behavior of the fire will also be more intense and unpredictable.
Stability is usually expressed as very unstable, unstable, slightly unstable, neutral, slightly stable,
stable, or very stable. It is a component of the forestry forecast in many states, and is expressed
in some type of index. During slightly unstable or stable periods, higher concentrations of smoke
may come back to the ground some distance downwind even though it was lifted initially by the
heat of the fire.
 SMOKE MOVEMENT
During a fire, chimney effect, rather than expansion, is responsible for the greater proportion of
smoke migration. Because some level of temperature differ- ential usually exists between a
building and the exterior atmosphere, chimney effect is also responsible for much of the normal air
movement in buildings.
 SMOKE TOXICITY
The smoke released by any type of fire (forest, brush, crop, structure, tires, waste or wood burning) is a
mixture of particles and chemicals produced by incomplete burning of carbon-containing materials. All
smoke contains carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and particulate matter (PM or soot). Smoke can
contain many different chemicals, including aldehydes, acid gases, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), benzene, toluene, styrene, metals and dioxins. The type and
amount of particles and chemicals in smoke varies depending on what is burning, how much oxygen is
available, and the burn temperature.

Inhaling smoke for a short time can cause immediate (acute) effects. Smoke is irritating to the eyes,
nose, and throat, and its odor may be nauseating. Studies have shown that some people exposed to
heavy smoke have temporary changes in lung function, which makes breathing more difficult. Two of the
major agents in smoke that can cause health effects are carbon monoxide gas and very small particles
(fine particles, or PM2.5 ). These particles are two and one half (2.5) microns or less in size (25,400
microns equal an inch) and individual particles are too small to be seen with the naked eye.
Inhaling carbon monoxide decreases the body's oxygen supply. This can cause headaches, reduce
alertness, and aggravate a heart condition known as angina. Fine particles are able to travel deeply
into the respiratory tract, reaching the lungs. Inhaling fine particles can cause a variety of health
effects, including respiratory irritation and shortness of breath, and can worsen medical conditions
such as asthma and heart disease. During increased physical exertion, cardiovascular effects can
be worsened by exposure to carbon monoxide and particulate matter. Once exposure stops,
symptoms from inhaling carbon monoxide or fine particles generally diminish, but may last for a
couple of days.

Toxicity of CO- Carbon monoxide poisoning typically occurs from breathing in carbon monoxide
(CO) at excessive levels. Symptoms are often described as "flu-like" and commonly include
headache, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, chest pain, and confusion. Large exposures can result in
loss of consciousness, arrhythmias, seizures, or death.
Toxicity of CO2- Carbon monoxide poisoning typically occurs from breathing in carbon monoxide
(CO) at excessive levels. Symptoms are often described as "flu-like" and commonly include
headache, dizziness, weakness, vomiting, chest pain, and confusion. Large exposures can result
in loss of consciousness, arrhythmias, seizures, or death.

Toxicity of NO2- Nitrogen dioxide poisoning is harmful to all forms of life just like chlorine gas
poisoning and carbon monoxide poisoning. It is easily absorbed through the lungs and its
inhalation can result in heart failure and sometimes death in severe cases.

Toxicity of SO2- Sulfur dioxide is severely irritating to the eyes, mucous membranes, skin, and
respiratory tract. Bronchospasm, pulmonary edema, pneumonitis, and acute airway obstruction
can occur. Inhalation exposure to very low concentrations of sulfur dioxide can aggravate chronic
pulmonary diseases, such as asthma and emphysema.
 MODULE 3
FIRE DYNAMICS

Temperature- the degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially as

expressed according to a comparative scale and shown by a thermometer or perceived by touch.

Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in an object. When
temperature increases, the motion of these particles also increases. It's not a terrible definition,
but it's not the best either.
HEAT- Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with
different temperatures (flowing from the high-temperature system to the low-temperature
system). Also referred to as heat energy or thermal energy. Heat is typically measured in Btu,
calories or joules.

SPECIFIC HEAT- specific heat, the quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of a substance by one Celsius degree. The units of specific heat are usually calories or
joules per gram per Celsius degree.
FLASH POINT- The flash point is an important concept in fire investigation and fire protection
because it is the lowest temperature at which a risk of fire exists with a given liquid. It is crucial in
many circumstances to establish the presence of some liquids and to know their flash point during
the investigation process. In chemistry, the flash point of a volatile material is the lowest
temperature at which its vapors ignite if given an ignition source. The flash point is sometimes
confused with the autoignition temperature, the temperature that causes spontaneous ignition.

FIRE POINT- The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapour of that fuel
will continue to burn for at least five seconds after ignition by an open flame of standard
dimension.the lowest temperature at which a volatile combustible substance continues to
burn in air after its vapors have been ignited (as when heating is continued after the flash point
has been determined) — compare ignition temperature.
IGNITION- An ignition system generates a spark or heats an electrode to a high temperature to ignite a
fuel-air mixture in spark ignition internal combustion engines, oil-fired and gas-fired boilers, rocket
engines, etc. Ignition is the process of providing the energy that is required to initiate a combustion
process. When hydrocarbons interact with molecular oxygen to combust, it requires what is known as
activation energy to do so - the minimum energy needed to "activate" a chemical reaction.

COMBUSTION- Combustion, or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical reaction

between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous
products, in a mixture termed as smoke. In a combustion reaction, a fuel is heated and it reacts with
oxygen. ... When fuels burn in combustion reactions, they release useful thermal energy (heat).
Combustion reactions are used to heat our homes, power most cars, and to generate a lot of our
electricity.

PILOT IGNITION- The accidental initiation of combustion by means of contact of gaseous material
with an external high-energy source, such as a flame, spark, electrical arc, or glowing wire.
 TYPES OF COMBUSTION
Combustion is a chemical process or a reaction between Fuel (Hydrocarbon) and Oxygen. When
fuel and oxygen react it releases the heat and light energy. Heat and light energy then result in the
flame. So, the formula for Combustion reaction is Hydrobcarbon + Oxygen = Heat energy.
Combustion is used in car motors and rocket engines and many other machineries.

Combustion can be divided into three types –

● Rapid Combustion
● Spontaneous Combustion
● Explosive Combustion
 RAPID COMBUSTION
Rapid combustion is a form of combustion in which large amounts of heat and light energy
are released. This often occurs as a fire. This is used in a form of machinery, such as internal
combustion engines, and in thermobaric weapons. Slow combustion is a form of combustion
which takes place at low temperatures.The combustion in which the gas burns rapidly and
produces heat and light is called rapid combustion.

Rapid energy needs external heat energy for the reaction to occur. The combustion produces a
large amount of heat and light energy and does so rapidly. The combustion will carry on as long
as the fuel is available. An example is when you light a candle. The heat energy is provided when
we light the candle with a matchstick. And it will carry on till the wax burns out. Hence it is a rapid
combustion.
 SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION
Spontaneous combustion is the phenomenon in which a hydrocarbon (or a chemical
substance) substance unexpectedly bursts into flame without apparent cause. Spontaneous
combustion or spontaneous ignition is a type of combustion which occurs by self-heating, followed
by thermal runaway and finally, autoignition. Spontaneous combustion often occurs in piles of
hydrocarbon-soaked (oily) rags and can constitute a serious fire hazard.

Spontaneous combustion can occur when a substance with a relatively low ignition temperature
(hay, straw, peat, etc.) begins to release heat. This may occur in several ways, either by
oxidation in the presence of moisture and air, or bacterial fermentation, which generates heat.

the outbreak of fire without application of heat from an external source. Spontaneous
combustion may occur when combustible matter, such as hay or coal, is stored in bulk.
 EXPLOSIVE COMBUSTION
A very fast combustion reaction in which a large amount of heat, light and sound are
produced is called explosive combustion. A large amount of gases is released quickly.It is the
rapid expansion of these gases which causes a loud sound.

Explosive combustion is the combustion in which a substance burns suddenly and produces heat,
light, and sound with the help of an external source of heat or pressure. Eg:- explosion of
crackers on applying heat or pressure.

The generation of heat in large quantities accompanies most explosive chemical reactions. ... It is
the rapid liberation of heat that causes the gaseous products of most explosive reactions to
expand and generate high pressures. This rapid generation of high pressures of the released gas
constitutes the explosion.
 PRODUCT OF COMBUSTION
1. FLAME- A flame is the visible, gaseous part of a fire. It is caused by a highly exothermic
chemical reaction taking place in a thin zone. Very hot flames are hot enough to have ionized
gaseous components of sufficient density to be considered plasma.

2. HEAT- Heat is the form of energy that is transferred between systems or objects with
different temperatures (flowing from the high-temperature system to the low-temperature
system). Also referred to as heat energy or thermal energy.
3. SMOKE- Smoke is a collection of airborne particulates and gases emitted when a material
undergoes combustion or pyrolysis, together with the quantity of air that is entrained or otherwise
mixed into the mass. A visible suspension of carbon or other particles in air, typically one emitted
from a burning substance.

4. FUEL GASES- Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that under ordinary conditions are
gaseous. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or
mixtures thereof. Fuel gas means gas generated at a petroleum refinery or petrochemical
plant and that is combusted separately or in any combination with any type of gas.
 DIFFUSION FLAME
In combustion, a diffusion flame is a flame in which the oxidizer and fuel are separated before
burning. Contrary to its name, a diffusion flame involves both diffusion and convection processes.
The name diffusion flame was first suggested by S.P. Burke and T.E.W. Schumann in 1928, to
differentiate from premixed flame where fuel and oxidizer are premixed prior to burning. The
diffusion flame is also referred to as non premixed flame. The burning rate is however still limited
by the rate of diffusion. Diffusion flames tend to burn slower and to produce more soot than
premixed flames because there may not be sufficient oxidizer for the reaction to go to completion,
although there are some exceptions to the rule. The soot typically produced in a diffusion flame
becomes incandescent from the heat of the flame and lends the flame its readily identifiable
orange-yellow color. Diffusion flames tend to have a less-localized flame front than premixed
flames.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF DIFFUSION FLAME
The distinctive characteristic of a diffusion flame is that the burning rate is determined by the rate
at which the fuel and oxidizer are brought together in proper proportions for reaction. Since
diffusion rates vary with pressure and the rate of overall combustion reactions varies
approximately with the pressure squared, at very low pressures the flame formed will exhibit
premixed combustion characteristics even though the fuel and oxidizer may be separate
concentric gaseous streams. Diffusion flames have far greater practical application than
premixed flames.
 PREMIXED FLAME
A premixed flame is a flame formed under certain conditions during the combustion of a
premixed charge (also called pre-mixture) of fuel and oxidiser. Since the fuel and oxidiser—the
key chemical reactants of combustion—are available throughout a homogeneous stoichiometric
premixed charge, the combustion process once initiated sustains itself by way of its own heat
release. The majority of the chemical transformation in such a combustion process occurs
primarily in a thin interfacial region which separates the unburned and the burned gases. The
premixed flame interface propagates through the mixture until the entire charge is depleted. [1] The
propagation speed of a premixed flame is known as the flame speed (or burning velocity) which
depends on the convection-diffusion-reaction balance within the flame, i.e.
on its inner chemical structure. The premixed flame is characterised
as laminar or turbulent depending on the velocity distribution
in the unburned pre-mixture (which provides the medium of
propagation for the flame).
 BURNING VELOCITY
Burning velocity is the speed at which a flame front propagates relative to the unburned gas. This
differs from flame speed. The laminar burning velocity (SL) is the speed at which a laminar
(planar) combustion wave propagates relative to the unburned gas mixture ahead of it. The
fundamental burning velocity (Su) is similar, but generally not identical to, the observed laminar
burning velocity. This is because Su is a characteristic parameter referring to standardized
unburned gas conditions (normally 760 mm Hg and 25 degrees C), and which has been corrected
for nonidealities in the measurement. The turbulent burning velocity (St) exceeds the burning
velocity measured under laminar conditions to a degree depending on the scale and intensity of
turbulence in the unburned gas.
 LIMITS OF FLAMMABILITY
Mixtures of dispersed combustible materials and oxygen in the air will burn only if the fuel
concentration lies within well-defined lower and upper bounds determined experimentally, referred
to as flammability limits or explosive limits. Combustion can range in violence from deflagration
through detonation.Flammability limit refers to the upper or lower limits of the gaseous or
vaporized fuel or combustible material at a fixed temperature and pressure that can lead to
flame propagation, detonation or an explosion. Fuel or combustible concentrations outside the
both limits are considered to be non-flammable.
LOWER FLAMMABILITY LIMIT(LFL)- Lower flammability limit (LFL) refers to the lower limit of
the gaseous or vaporized fuel, combustible material or dust's concentration in the air, at a fixed
temperature and pressure, which can lead to flame propagation, detonation or an explosion.

UPPER FLAMMABILITY LIMIT(UFL)- The upper flammable limit (UFL) is the highest
percentage of a vapor or gas in the atmosphere that will result in a flammable response when an
ignition source is introduced. The concentration of a gas or vapor may be beyond the upper
flammable limit, at which point it is too concentrated to burn.
 DEFLAGRATION
A rapid chemical reaction in which the output of heat is sufficient to enable the reaction to proceed
and accelerate without input of heat from another source. Deflagration is a surface phenomenon,
with the reaction products flowing away from the unreacted material along the surface at subsonic
velocity. The effect of a true deflagration under confinement is an explosion. Confinement of the
reaction increases pressure, rate of reaction, and temperature and may cause transition into a
detonation.

Deflagration is subsonic combustion propagating through heat transfer: hot burning material heats
the next layer of cold material and ignites it. Most "fires" found in daily life, from flames to
explosions such as from black powder, are deflagrations.
 DETONATION
The detonation process is based on repetitive explosions or detonations of oxygen-fuel gas
mixtures, rather than the continuous burning of a combustion flame, as in the HVOF process.
Oxygen and acetylene are loaded into a long, water-cooled barrel with powder. The mixture is
ignited and it explodes.

Detonation is a type of combustion involving a supersonic exothermic front accelerating through a

medium that eventually drives a shock front propagating directly in front of it. Detonations occur in
both conventional solid and liquid explosives, as well as in reactive gases.
PHYSICAL EXPLOSION

The catastrophic rupture of a pressurized gas/vapor-filled vessel by means other than reaction, or
the sudden phase-change from liquid to vapor of a superheated liquid.

CHEMICAL EXPLOSION

A chemical explosive is a compound or mixture which, upon the application of heat or shock,
decomposes or rearranges with extreme rapidity, yielding much gas and heat. Many substances
not ordinarily classed as explosives may do one, or even two, of these things.
 FLASH FIRE
A flash fire is a sudden, intense fire caused by ignition of a mixture of air and a dispersed
flammable substance such as a solid (including dust), flammable or combustible liquid (such as an
aerosol or fine mist), or a flammable gas. It is characterized by high temperature, short duration,
and a rapidly moving flame front.

A flash fire is defined by NFPA 2112 as:

"A type of short-duration fire that spreads by means of a flame front rapidly through a diffuse
fuel, such as dust, gas, or the vapors of an ignitable liquid, without the production of damaging
pressure."
 CONTD.
Flash fires may occur in environments where fuel, typically flammable gas or dust, is mixed with
air in concentrations suitable for combustion.
In a flash fire, the flame spreads at subsonic velocity, so the overpressure damage is usually
negligible and the bulk of the damage comes from the thermal radiation and secondary fires.
When inhaled, the heated air resulting from a flash fire can cause serious damage to the tissue of
the lungs, possibly leading to death by asphyxiation. Flash fires can lead to smoke burns.
Flash fire is a particular danger in enclosed spaces, as even a relatively small fire can consume
enough oxygen and produce enough smoke to cause death of the persons present, whether by
asphyxiation or by smoke inhalation.[2]
Protective clothing made of fire-retardant materials (e.g. Nomex) reduces or prevents thermal
injury in the body areas that are covered by the fire-retardant material. Even normal clothing can
provide partial protection.
 POOL FIRE
A pool fire is a turbulent diffusion fire burning above a horizontal pool of vaporising
hydrocarbon fuel where the fuel has zero or low initial momentum. Fires in the open will be
well ventilated (fuel-controlled), but fires within enclosures may become under-ventilated
(ventilation-controlled).

A pool fire is a type of diffusion flame where a layer of volatile liquid fuel is evaporating and
burning. The fuel layer can be either on a horizontal solid substrate or floating on a higher-density
liquid, usually water. Pool fires are an important scenario in fire safety science, as large amounts
of liquid fuels are stored and transported by different industries.
 CONTD
The most important physical parameter describing a pool fire is the heat release rate, which
determines the minimum safe distance needed to avoid burns from thermal radiation. The heat
release rate is limited by the rate of evaporation of the fuel, as the combustion reaction takes
place in the gas phase. The evaporation rate, in turn, is determined by other physical parameters,
such as the depth, surface area and shape of the pool, as well as the fuel boiling point,
heat of vaporization, heat of combustion, thermal conductivity and others. A feedback loop exists
between the heat release rate and evaporation rate, as a significant part of the energy released in
the combustion reaction will be transmitted from the gas phase to the liquid fuel, and can supply
the needed heat of vaporization. In the case of large pool fires, most of the heat transfer happens
in the form of thermal radiation.
Typical fuels in accidental pool fires, or experiments simulating them, include aliphatic
hydrocarbons (n-heptane, liquefied propane gas), aromatic hydrocarbons (toluene, xylene),
alcohols (methanol, ethanol) or mixtures thereof (kerosene). It is important that a pool fire with a
water-insoluble fuel is not attempted to be extinguished with water, as this can trigger explosive
boiling and spattering of the burning material.
 DEEP SEATED FIRE
A fire burning far below the surface in duff, mulch, peat, or other combustibles as contrasted with a
surface fire.A fire that has gained headway and built up heat in a structure so as to require grea.

A fire burning far below the surface in duff, mulch, peat, or other combustibles as contrasted
with a surface fire. A fire that has gained headway and built up heat in a structure so as to require
greater cooling for extinguishment.
 BOIL OVER
A boilover (or boil-over) type of fire refers to an extremely hazardous situation where an attempt
is made to extinguish semi-enclosed oil or petrochemical fueled fire with water. The hazard results
due to the difference in density between oil and water.
NFPA defines boil-over as: An event in the burning of certain oils in an open-top tank when, after a
long period of quiescent burning, there is a sudden increase in fire intensity associated with
expulsion of burning oil from the tank.
As water is poured onto the fuel, it quickly sinks to the bottom of the container due to the water's
higher density, and has little effect on extinguishing the flames on the surface. Under certain
conditions, after some time, the water on the bottom rapidly vaporises into steam, causing it to
expand more than 1700 times in volume. The rapidly expanding steam (possibly superheated)
expels the oil or fuel above upward and out of the tank, resulting in the discharging of burning oil
onto a large and uncontrolled area outside of the container. Mathematical modelling of the
phenomenon is difficult and complicated, making boilover prediction unreliable.
 SLOPOVER
A ‘slop-over’ is where thermal expansion or surface boiling of product causes burning fuel to flow
over the side of its container.

A fire edge that crosses a control line or natural barrier intended to contain the fire.

A fire edge that crosses a control line or natural barrier intended to confine the fire.
 DUST EXPLOSION
A dust explosion is the rapid combustion of fine particles suspended in the air within an enclosed
location. Dust explosions can occur where any dispersed powdered combustible material is present in
high-enough concentrations in the atmosphere or other oxidizing gaseous medium, such as pure oxygen.
In cases when fuel plays the role of a combustible material, the explosion is known as a fuel-air
explosion.
Dust explosions are a frequent hazard in coal mines, grain elevators, and other industrial environments.
They are also commonly used by special effects artists, filmmakers, and pyrotechnicians, given their
spectacular appearance and ability to be safely contained under certain carefully controlled conditions.
Thermobaric weapons utilize this principle by rapidly saturating an area with an easily combustible
material and then igniting it to produce explosive force. These weapons are the most powerful non-
nuclear weapons in existence.
Dust explosions may be classified as being either "primary" or "secondary" in nature. Primary dust
explosions may occur inside process equipment or similar enclosures, and are generally controlled by
pressure relief through purpose-built ducting to the external atmosphere. Secondary dust explosions are
the result of dust accumulation inside a building being disturbed and ignited by the primary explosion,
resulting in a much more dangerous uncontrolled explosion that can affect the entire structure.
Historically, fatalities from dust explosions have largely been the result of secondary dust explosions.
There are five necessary conditions for a dust explosion:
● A combustible dust
● The dust is dispersed in the air at a sufficiently high concentration
● There is an oxidant (typically atmospheric oxygen)
● There is an ignition source
● The area is confined—a building can be an enclosure

Effects
A dust explosion can cause major damage to structures, equipment, and personnel from violent
overpressure or shockwave effects. Flying objects and debris can cause further damage. Intense
radiant heat from a fireball can ignite the surroundings, or cause severe skin burns in unprotected
persons. In a tightly enclosed space, the sudden depletion of oxygen can cause asphyxiation.
Where the dust is carbon based (such as in a coal mine), incomplete combustion may cause large
amounts of carbon monoxide (the miners' after-damp) to be created. This can cause more deaths
than the original explosion as well as hindering rescue attempts.
 BLEVE
A boiling liquid expanding vapor explosion (BLEVE, is an explosion caused by the rupture of a
vessel containing a pressurized liquid that has reached temperatures above its boiling point.
Because the boiling point of a liquid rises with pressure, the contents of the pressurized vessel
can remain liquid so long as the vessel is intact. If the vessel's integrity is compromised, the loss
of pressure and dropping boiling point can cause the liquid to rapidly convert to gas and expand
extremely rapidly. If the gas is combustible as well, as is the case e.g. with hydrocarbons and
alcohols, further damage can be caused by an ensuing fire.

A type of rapid phase transition in which a liquid contained above its atmospheric boiling point is
rapidly depressurized, causing a nearly instantaneous transition from liquid to vapor with a
corresponding energy release.

A type of rapid phase transition in which a liquid contained above its atmospheric boiling point is
rapidly depressurized, causing a nearly instantaneous transition from liquid to vapor with a
corresponding energy release.
 MECHANISM
There are three key elements causing a BLEVE:
1. A substance in liquid form at a temperature above its normal atmospheric pressure boiling point.
2. A containment vessel maintaining the pressure that keeps the substance in liquid form.
3. A sudden loss of containment that rapidly drops the pressure.
Typically, a BLEVE starts with a container of liquid which is held above its normal, atmospheric-pressure boiling
temperature. Many substances normally stored as liquids, such as CO2, propane, and other similar
industrial gases have boiling temperatures, at atmospheric pressure, far below room temperature. In the case of
water, a BLEVE could occur if a pressurized chamber of water is heated far beyond the standard 100 °C (212 °F).
That container, because the boiling water pressurizes it, must be capable of holding liquid water at very high
temperatures.
If the pressurized vessel, containing liquid at high temperature (which may be room temperature, depending on
the substance) ruptures, the pressure which prevents the liquid from boiling is lost. If the rupture is catastrophic,
where the vessel is immediately incapable of holding any pressure at all, then there suddenly exists a large mass
of liquid which is at very high temperature and very low pressure. This causes a portion of the liquid to
"instantaneously" boil, which in turn causes an extremely rapid expansion. Depending on temperatures, pressures
and the substance involved, that expansion may be so rapid that it can be classified as an explosion, fully capable
of inflicting severe damage on its surroundings.
BLEVEs can be caused by an external fire near the storage vessel causing heating of the contents and
pressure build-up. While tanks are often designed to withstand great pressure, constant heating can cause the
metal to weaken and eventually fail. If the tank is being heated in an area where there is no liquid, it may
rupture faster without the liquid to absorb the heat. Gas containers are usually equipped with relief valves that
vent off excess pressure, but the tank can still fail if the pressure is not released quickly enough. [1] Relief valves
are sized to release pressure fast enough to prevent the pressure from increasing beyond the strength of the
vessel, but not so fast as to be the cause of an explosion. An appropriately sized relief valve will allow the
liquid inside to boil slowly, maintaining a constant pressure in the vessel until all the liquid has boiled and the
vessel empties.
If the substance involved is flammable, it is likely that the resulting cloud of the substance will ignite after the
BLEVE has occurred, forming a fireball and possibly a fuel-air explosion, also termed a
vapor cloud explosion (VCE). If the materials are toxic, a large area will be contaminated.
 UCVE
When a flammable vapor is released, its mixture with air will form a flammable vapor cloud. If
ignited, the flame speed may accelerate to high velocities and produce significant blast
overpressure.

The unconfined vapor cloud explosion (UVCE) is fire accidents that could cause severe
damage and it sometimes leads to high potential of casualties. Some research on the
phenomenon of explosions on UVCE has been carried out to find out the conditions so as to
enable an explosion.

When a flammable vapor is released, its mixture with air will form a flammable vapor cloud.
If ignited, the flame speed may accelerate to high velocities and produce significant blast
overpressure.

A UVCE is similar to a flash fire, except that in addition to the flame front, a pressure front,
generated by the fire, moves through the cloud, at speeds of 100 m /s or greater.
 MODULE 4
RESCUE EQUIPMENTS
Personal protective equipment, commonly referred to as "PPE", is equipment worn to minimize
exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace injuries and illnesses. These injuries and
illnesses may result from contact with chemical, radiological, physical, electrical, mechanical, or
other workplace hazards. Personal protective equipment may include items such as gloves, safety
glasses and shoes, earplugs or muffs, hard hats, respirators, or coveralls, vests and full body
suits.

All personal protective equipment should be safely designed and constructed, and should be
maintained in a clean and reliable fashion. It should fit comfortably, encouraging worker use. If the
personal protective equipment does not fit properly, it can make the difference between being
safely covered or dangerously exposed. When engineering, work practice, and administrative
controls are not feasible or do not provide sufficient protection, employers must provide personal
protective equipment to their workers and ensure its proper use.
Hearing protection

There are three types of hearing protection.

● Earmuffs/defenders that completely cover the ear.
● Ear plugs that are inserted into the ear canal.
● Semi inserts (also called canal caps) which cover the entrance of the ear canal.

Head protection

There are three widely used types of head protection.

● Industrial safety helmets (hard hats) which are designed to protect against materials falling
from a height or swinging objects.
● Industrial scalp protectors (bump caps) which are designed to protect from knocking
against stationary objects.
● Caps/hair nets which protect against entanglement.
Eye protection

There are several types of eye protection.

● Safety spectacles: these are similar to regular glasses but have a tougher lens, they can include
side shields for additional protection.
● Eye shield: a frame-less one piece molded lens often worn over prescription glasses.
● Safety goggles: these are made of flexible plastic frames and an elastic headband.
● Face shields: heavier and bulkier than other types of eye protection, face shields protect the
face, but do not fully enclose the eye so do not protect against dust, gases, fumes and mists.

Foot protection

There are a number of types of safety footwear.

● Safety boots or shoes, normally have steel toe caps but can have other safety features (e.g.
steel mid soles, slip resistant soles, insulation against the heat and cold.
● Wellington boot can also have steel toe caps.
● Anti-static and conductive footwear, these protect against static electricity.
Hand and arm protection

Hand and arm protection comes in a variety of forms.

● Gloves or gauntlets (leather, latex, nitrile, plastic coated, chain mail, etc).
● Wrist cuff armlets (e.g. used in glass cutting and handling).

Body protection

Types of body protection include

● overalls, aprons and coveralls (protection against hazardous substances)
● clothing for hot, cold or bad weather
● clothing to protect against machinery
● high visibility (jackets, trousers and vests)
● harnesses
● life jackets.
 IS CODES

HEAD PROTECTION PPE’S IS CODE:-

● IS CODE 2745 : 1983 – Specification for non-metal helmet for firemen and civil defense
personnel.
● IS CODE 2925 : 1984 – Specification Industrial safety helmet.
BODY PROTECTION PPE’S IS CODE:-
● IS CODE 3521 : 1999 – Industrial safety belt and harness.
● IS CODE 4501 : 1981 – Specification for aprons.
● IS CODE 6153 : 1971 – Protective leather clothing.
● IS CODE 7352 : 1974 – X-ray lead protective aprons.
● IS CODE 8519 : 1977 – Guide for selection industrial safety equipment for the body.
● IS CODE 8990 : 1978 – Code of practice for care and maintenance of industrial safety
clothing.
EAR PROTECTION PPE’S IS CODE:-
● IS CODE 6229 : 1980 – Methods for measurement of real-ear protection of hearing
protectors and physical attenuation of ear muffs.
● IS CODE 8520 : 1977 – Guide for selection of industrial safety equipment for eye, face
and ear protection.
● IS CODE 9167 : 1779 – Specification for ear protectors.
EYE AND FACE PROTECTION PPE’S IS CODE:-
● IS CODE 1179 : 1967 – Equipment for eye and face protection during welding.
● IS CODE 5983 : 1980 – Eye Protector.
● IS CODE 7524 : 1980 – Method of test for eye protectors: -non optical tests. (part -1)
● IS CODE 2521 : 1977 – Industrial safety face shield with plastic visor (part – 1)
● IS CODE 2521 : 1994 – Industrial safety face shield with wire mesh visor (part – 2)
● IS CODE 8940 : 1978 – Code of practice for maintenance and care of industrial
safety equipment for eyes and face protection.
● IS CODE 9973 : 1981 – Specification for the visor for scooter helmets.
● IS CODE 9995 : 1981 – Specification for the visor for non-metal police and firemen
helmets.
● IS CODE 14352 : 1996 – Miner’s safety goggles – Specification.
FEET AND LEG PROTECTION PPE’S IS CODE (IS CODE FOR SAFETY SHOES):-

● IS CODE 1989 : 1986 – Specification for leather safety boots and shoes – for miners (part –
1).
● IS CODE 1989 : 1986 – Specification for leather safety boots and shoes -for heavy metal
industries (part – 2)
● IS CODE 3737 : 1966 – Leather safety boots for workers in heavy metal industries.
● IS CODE 3738 : 1998 – Rubber boots – Specification.
● IS CODE 3976 : 2003 – Protective rubber canvas boots for miners – Specification.
● IS CODE 4128 : 1980 – Specification for fireman leather boots.
● IS CODE 5557 : 1999 – Safety rubber boots.
● IS CODE 5852 : 2004 – Steel toe safety shoes.
● IS CODE 6519 : 1971 – Code of practice for selection, care, and repair of safety footwear.
 CONTD
● IS CODE 7329 : 1974 – Metal last for safety rubber canvas ankle boots.
● IS CODE 10348 : 1982 – Safety footwear for the steel plant.
● IS CODE 10665 : 1982 – Safety rubber ankle boots for miners.
● IS CODE 10667 : 1983 – Guide for selection for industrial safety equipment for the protection of
foot and leg.
● IS CODE 11225 : 1985 – Leather safety shoes for women workers in mines and steel plants.
● IS CODE 11226 : 1993 – Leather safety footwear having direct molded rubber sole –
Specification.
● IS CODE 11264 : 1985 – Code of practice for manufacture of safety rubber footwear for miners.
● IS CODE 13295 : 1992 – Code of practice for manufacture of leather safety boots and shoes for
workers in mines and sea, metal industry.
● IS CODE 14544 : 1998 – Leather safety footwear wit& directly molded PVC soles –
Specification.
● IS CODE 15298 : 2002 – Safety, protective and occupational footwear for professional use -
Specification for safety footwear.
HANDS PROTECTION PPE’S IS CODE:-
● IS CODE 2573 : 1986 – Specification for leather, gauntlets and mittens.
● IS CODE 4770 : 1991 – Rubber Gloves – electrical purposes – specification.
● IS CODE 6994 : 1973 – Specification for safety gloves –leather and cotton gloves (part –
1).
● IS CODE 8807 : 1978 – Guide for selection of industrial safety equipment for the protection
of arms and hands.
 Selecting Personal Protective Equipment (PPE)
1. Familiarize yourself with the potential hazards in the area and the types of PPE
that are available

2. Consider the hazards associated with the environment (impact velocities,

masses, projectile shape, radiation intensities).

3. Select PPE that ensures a greater level of protection than the minimum required
to protect workers from the hazards.

4. Fit the worker with the PPE and give instructions on its use and care. It is very
important that workers be made aware of all warning labels for and limitations of
their PPE.
 CARE OF PPE
● Clean hard hats regularly with warm water and soap, and allow to air dry.
● Store head protection out of the sun, away from extreme temperatures, and in a safe place
(like a locker) where it can’t get knocked around and damaged.
● Check the headband to make sure that it isn’t stretched or worn and that the hat fits
comfortably on the head.
● Replace a hard hat if it is cracked, dented, or has taken a heavy blow.
● Clean safety glasses and goggles regularly with mild soap and water.
● Wash lenses with water before wiping to prevent scratching. (If employees don’t have access
to clean water, tell them to blow dust and grit from lenses before wiping.)
● Store eye protection preferably in a clean dust-proof case or in a safe place such as the top
shelf of a locker where it won’t get scratched or otherwise damaged.
● Replace safety glasses if frames are bent, and replace goggles if headbands are loose,
twisted, knotted, or worn. Replace any kind of eye protection if lenses are scratched or pitted
and impair vision.
● Wipe earmuffs with a damp cloth after each use, store them in a safe place, and replace
cushions when they lose their resilience.
● Wash reusable earplugs every day, store them in a clean case, and replace if plugs are hard
or discolored.
● Wipe canal caps (headband plugs) with a damp cloth after each use, store them in a safe
place so the headband won’t get bent or twisted, and replace if the band is damaged and no
longer fits comfortably.
● Clean and disinfect them according to manufacturer’s instructions.
● Check for holes, cracks, deterioration, and any other problems that could interfere with the
effectiveness of protection.
● Store in a safe location, protected from dust, light, heat, cold, moisture, and chemicals.
● Place the respirator so that rubber and plastic parts are in a normal position and hold their
shape.
 CONTD.
● Keep gloves clean and dry.
● Wipe wet or soiled shoes with a clean cloth or paper towel.
● Air out work shoes after work, and check regularly for signs of damage or wear.
● Have worn or damaged shoes repaired, or replace them.
● Change socks during the lunch break to keep feet and shoes dry if feet sweat a lot.
● Have a backup pair in case gloves get wet (or must be washed) and need to dry.
● Check for holes, cracks, and other damage before each use.
● Replace worn or damaged gloves right away.
 MODULE 5
RESCUE OPERATION

Rescue comprises responsive operations that usually involve the saving of life, or the urgent
treatment of injuries after an accident or a dangerous situation.
Tools used might include search and rescue dogs, mounted search and rescue horses,
helicopters, the "jaws of life", and other hydraulic cutting and spreading tools used to extricate
individuals from wrecked vehicles. Rescue operations are sometimes supported by
rescue vehicles operated by rescue squads.
Ropes and special devices can reach and remove individuals and animals from difficult locations
including:
● Air-sea rescue
● Cave rescue
● Combat search and rescue
● Confined space rescue
● Helicopter rescue basket
● Hostage rescue
● Mine rescue
● Mountain rescue
● Rope rescue
● Search and rescue
● Ski patrol
● Surface water rescue
● Swiftwater rescue
● Urban search and rescue
● Vehicle extrication
● Wilderness
 PERSONNEL RESCUE METHOD
1. Ankle pull rescue method:

It is a simple method for moving the victim a short distance over a smooth surface.

1. Pick the pick victim by both ankles

2. Pull with your legs not your back

3. Keep back as straight as possible

2.Shoulder pull rescue method:

It supports head of victim. Drawback is that it requires rescuer to bend down

1. Pick victim by clothing under shoulder

2. Support head

3. Try to keep pull as straight and in line as possible

3. Blanket pull rescue method:

It is a simple method to drag the victim.

1. Place victim with head approx 2ft from one corner of blanket

2. Wrap the blanket corner around victim and pull with back as straight as possible
4. One person lift rescue method:

This method used only for child and light weight person.
5. Fire fighter carry rescue method:

It is used to carry a person over a long distance. It requires stronger rescuer.

6. Pack strap carry rescue method:

it is also used to carry a person over a long distance. Victim is locked his hand over the rescuer shoulder.
7. Rescue by two rescuer method:

A. Human crutch – For conscious victim this method is used to carry him. It is a easy way to move the person
from danger. For unconscious victim rescuer grasp the victim with belt.
B. Four handed seat: For moderate resistance this method is used.
C. Two handed seat: It is used to carry a person over a long distance it also supports unconscious victim.
8. Chair carry rescue method:

It is used for carrying the person through stairs.

9. 3 Rescuer hammock carry rescue method:

The strongest member is on one side while other to another side of victim . the person near to head will
command for lifting.
10. 3 person carry rescue method:

It is used for lifting the patient into paid or transporting them over a short distance.