FACTORS AFFECTING CROP

PRODUCTION
Katrina May B. Famador
FACTORS AFFECTING CROP PRODUCTION

• Crop production can be viewed from two

perspectives:
– 1- at the CROP level
– 2- at the PRODUCTION SYSTEMS level
 Crop Production at CROP LEVEL
• In the form of an equation:

Y = f[G+E+(GxE)]
Where, Y = yield
G = genotype
E = environment
G x E = interaction
Crop Production at SYSTEMS LEVEL

environment
Inputs systems
Output (Yield)
(resources)

• At production system,
– INPUTS – controllable, manageable resources such as seeds,
fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
– OUTPUT – yield
– ENVIRONMENT – uncontrollable factors external to the
system
– SYSTEM – component crops, processes and activities
 EXTERNAL FACTORS
(Environmental Factors)
• Abiotic factors • Biotic factors
– CLIMATE • Beneficial organisms
• Pests
– Light
– Temperature
– Atmospheric gases
– Relative Humidity
– Climatic Stresses
– SOIL FACTORS
Environmental Factors

Abiotic
 • What is the difference
QUESTION #1 between CLIMATE and
WEATHER?
 Climate is the prevailing average
weather condition of a place as
determined by the temperature and
meteorological changes over a period
of years, while weather is the general
condition of the atmosphere at a
particular time and place with regard
to the temperature, cloudiness, etc.
 Light (Abiotic)
1. Light – sun, incandescent, fluorescent bulbs
provides physical energy converted by
chlorophyll into chemical energy (ATP) ,
to convert carbon dioxide and water into
carbohydrates

Ps
light
6CO2 +6H2O ------------------- C6H12O6 + 6O2
chlorophyll
 Light
1.a. Light Intensity
- amount of light received by plants measured in foot
candles or lumens
- one foot candle is the amount of illumination shed by a
standard candle on a square foot of surface with
curvature radius of 12 inches from the candle
- at full sunlight, middle of a day is 10,000 foot-candles
- sun loving plants like rice, soybean and corn require 6,000
to 10,000 foot candles
- soybean leaf is only two thirds as efficient as corn leaf in
fixing carbon at full sunlight
- shade-loving plants are saturated more rapidly than sun-
loving plants
 Light
1.b. Light Quality
– wavelength or electromagnetic spectrum; violet,
blue, green, yellow, orange, and red
- high photosynthetic; red spectrum (0.61 to 0.70
microns) and blue-violet (0.40 to 0.51 microns)
 Light
• 1.c. Light Duration
- length of exposure of the plant to light (day length
everyday
-Photoperiodism -response of plants to light duration
-The farther the country from the equator such as U.S.
the longer the day length.
-Phils. - Not much affected because it is near the
equator
- usually, short day on Sept. to January
 Classification of plants according to
photoperiodic response
Photoperiod sensitive plants- Daylength influence the
production of flowering hormone
LDP – long day plants flower with day length 13 to 16 hrs/day
SDP – short day plants flower with day length 8-12 hrs light/day

Photoperiod insensitive plants

DNP – day neutral plants or non-seasonal plants , not affected
by day length

Elon-elon, Tjeremas and Wagwag – trad’l rice var –

short day; flower only on November with short day length
 • How do you
Question #2
define the term
SCIOPHYTES? and
give an example.
 Classification of plants according to light
intensity requirements
• SCIOPHYTES
– Shade loving
– Light saturated at about 500 foot candles
– Ginger, african violet, ferns, coffee, black pepper,
anthurium
• HELIOPHYTES
– Sun loving
– Light saturated at about 5,000 foot candles
– Banana, chrysanthemum, corn, cotton, cucurbits, etc.
 Light
• 1.d. Light Utilization by Plants
– Only 1% of light received by the leaf of a plant is
utilized for photosynthesis.
– Plants with high percentages of light utilization (Eu)
has a high efficiency of converting light into dry
matter.
– Maximum use of intercepted sunlight can be possible
only with proper cultural and management practices.
• Example: Proper spacing, balance fertilization, proper weed
control, varieties with upright leaves or with high harvest
index.
 Energy
Income Heating Air 2%

Reflection 20%
Tran Plant Growth 1%
spira
tion
Back 39%
Radiation
34%
Heating Soil 2%

FLIGHT OF LIGHT ENERGY

 Temperature
2. Temperature
– amount of heat (cold, warm or hot) received by the
plants
– All physical and chemical processes are affected ;
Diffusion of gases and liquids, solubility ,and rate of
reactions
– Rate of uncatalyzed reactions increase 2 times for
each 10 degrees centigrade rise in temperature until
an optimum is reached.
– Stability of the enzyme is affected.
 Temperature
2. Temperature
Temperature is very critical in germination, breaking seed
dormancy, flowering ,and other growth processes.
Relates with translocation of photosynthetate
For temperate plants; wheat , rye, and barley, cold
temperature is needed to initiate flowering hormones, not
flower under tropical conditions
Cardinal temperature: 5 to 54 degrees centigrade
Corn – maximum cardinal temp. is 45 deg.. cent. And
minimum - 10 deg. cent., optimum – 30-35 deg. cent.
20 – 25 deg. cent. Optimum temp. for most plants
 • Which of the following line
represents the effect of
Question #3 respiration to photosynthesis?

Below
Optimum Above
Optimum
Optimum
 Atmospheric gases
3. Atmospheric gases
Air – mild moving wind – effective pollination, replenishment of CO2 around the plant
environment
Wind – strong moving air – disastrous to plants during pollination and fertilization process
Oxygen – respiration to release ATP for plant processes (21%)
-important also for absorption, translocation, germination process
• N2 – inert gas and exert a little influence upon plant growth not until it is converted to
NH4 or NO3 in the soil or served as fertilizer (79%)
CO2 - product of respiration of microorganisms, plants, animals, combustion
in industries (0.03%)

Amount of carbon fixed by photosynthesis per year – 150 billion tons - support 1,160
billion of population
134 billion tons of carbon from ocean – 1,040 billion population
16 billion tons of carbon from land – 120 billion population, 5 billion tons from
cultivated land – support 38 billion population
 • Which of the statement is correct
Question#4
and why?

– Low RH, with high temperature will

result to high evapotranspiration.

– High RH, with high temperature will

result to high evapotranspiration.
 Relative Humidity
4. Relative Humidity – amount of water vapor in the air.
- affects drying and storing of seeds
-high relative humidity affects seeds in an open storage
-Seed moisture tend to equilibrate with the air
-Affects transpiration – release of water depends on the
concentration of water vapor surrounding the leaves
-Water flow is from higher concentration to lesser
concentration
 Water

5. Water
component of plant protoplasm, 90 to 95 % on fresh
weight basis
raw material for photosynthesis
maintains turgidity of plant cell
growth is reduced by a decreased in relative turgidity below
90% and so on
affects the opening and closing of stomata
reduce CO2 entry – reduce Ps and transpiration
transpiration gives off water – regulate body temperature
 Water
solvent of plant food and nutrient in the soil
carrier of nutrients into the plant system
important for land prep., efficient utilization
of fertilizer, seed germination, establishment
of transplant, flowering and plant nutrition
 Terms
Drought – deficiency of available moisture - reduce
plant growth
Drought evasion – complete life cycle before serious
water stress
Drought avoidance – drought endurance with high
internal water content, accomplished with deep root
system or reduced transpiration
Drought tolerance – endurance with low internal
water content with ability to recover and grow when
soil water is replenished
 Question #5

• Mango requires a climate with distinct dry

season of at least four months. The best
climate for mango is:

a. Type 1 b. Type 2 c. Type 3 d. Type 4

…
ANSWER: a
 Water
Rain – primary source of water in the Philippines
Average annual rainfall – 2,553 mm, Luzon – 2,724
mm,Visayas – 2,391.7 mm and Mindanao – 2,349.8 mm
2 seasons – wet and dry

Climate type (Coronas, 1920)

Type 1 – 2 pronounced seasons ; dry Nov. – April, wet rest of
the year, less than 50 mm precipitation—western Luzon,
Mindoro, Negros and Palawan
Type 2 – No dry season, maximum rain Nov. to January -
Catanduanes, Sorsogon, east Albay, northern Cam. Norte and
Cam sur, eastern Mindanao
 Water
• Type 3 – Seasons not very pronounced, relatively dry from
Nov. to April and relatively wet the rest of the year, west
Cagayan valley, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Masbate, Romblon,
Northern Panay, Easter Negros, Central and southern
Cebu, Northern Mindanao, Eastern Palawan
• Type 4 – rainfall evenly distributed, cyclonic and monsoon
rain, thunderstorm rains without single dry month,
Batanes, northeastern Luzon, Camarines Norte, wester
Cam sur, Albay, Quezon, eastern Mindoro, Marinduque,
western Leyte, northern Cebu, Bohol Central and eastern
Mindanao
 CLIMATIC STRESSES
• Typhoon
• Ozone Destruction
• Global Warming
• El Niño/La Niña
• Acid Rain
• Lahar
• Typhoon and weather variation

• Typhoon – strong wind will speed greater than 121 kph.

Tropical storm typhoon

depression

– usually originate from the Pacific Ocean; circulation (800 km

diameter) with a low central pressure (-72 cm Hg) with air
spiral towards the calm eye (300 km diameter)
• Destruction of the Ozone Layer
– reported to be 50% (Antartica)
– Ozone – protective shield against the harmful UV rays
– it is 6-30 miles above the earth

Harmful Effects:
• Depressed Photosynthesis
• Reduced levels of seed protein, lipids and carbohydrates
• Deleterious effects on human (skin cancer, etc.)
• Global Warming
– increased concentration of carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere
– Carbon dioxide concentration might double to around
600ppm in 30-75 years
– Methane gas contribute to global warming
– Results to high atmospheric temperature which affect the
ocean level by a few mm per year
– Ingress of saline water to a 15 km distance inland
– Ocean levels will rise by as much as 30 cm in the year 2010
and up to 150 cm by 2050
• “EL NIÑO”
• What is El Niño?
– a periodic ocean – warming and atmospheric disturbance
characterized by deficient rainfall or prolonged drought in some
areas, while heavy rains, storms or hurricanes occur in other areas of
the globe.
– For the past 30 years, the Philippines has been hit by some seven (7)
El Niño episodes.
– The 1982-83 episode is rated as the most intense in the past century
– The 1997-98 episode, has comparable intensity, bringing immense
damage to Philippine crops, water, electric supply aside from
contributing to poisoning of sea food (red tide)
• “EL NIÑO”
• Origin of El Niño
– From the Spanish word meaning “ Boy child or Little Child”
– Used to be considered as local event along the coasts of Peru and Ecuador –
describing the appearance of warm ocean currents flowing the South and
Central America coasts around Christmas time- believing that the temporary
heavy harvest of fish was a gift of the Christ child.
 
• El Niño Watch
• El Niño occurs in the Pacific Basin every 2 to 9 years. It usually starts
during the Northern winter (December to February). Once
established, it lasts until the first half of the following year, although
at times, it stays longer. It exhibits phase-locking in annual cycles.
• Climate indicator of El Niño in the Philippines include
– delayed on set of the rainy season
– early termination of the rainy season
– weak monsoon activity
– weak tropical cyclones activity
 
– El Niño is to be said to be triggered when the strong westward-blowing trade winds weaken and
reverse direction.

• Effects of El Niño
• fish kill specially cold water fish
• - tuna and milk fish catch declines
• Decrease in yield for most crops
• Human death
• Acid Rain
– sulfur dioxide produces S which is released from a
natural sources and human activities
– oxides of S and water will produce acid rain
• Lahar
– Mt. Pinatubo eruption in the early 1990’s
– Lead to decreased in agricultural lands resulting to
low production
 • What is the other
Question #6
term for Soil
Factor?
 Soil Factors
5. Soil Factors – Variations in soil conditions and
mineral content affects plant growth
Soil as a three
phase system:
•Solid – mineral +
organic matter
•Liquid – soil
solution
•Gas – various
gases
Soil Factors
• Physical Properties
– Soil texture
– the relative proportion of primary soil particles, e.i., sand, and clay in a particular soil

particles
• sand >.02 µ
• silt .02-.002µ
• clay <.002 µ
 
 
soil texture range:

sand loam clay

<10% equal >4.5%
Clay proportion of sand clay
H and clay
 
• -importance of soil texture to crop production

Heavy soil Light soil

• Tillability : difficult easy
• Water holding : less more
capacity
• Nutrient holding: high low
capacity
 • What is the
Question #7
difference of
soil texture to
soil structure ?
 – Soil Structure -the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates.
 
• How soil structure is formed?
• Ped -natural structure
• Dod -structure formed with the application of external force, e.g.,
plowing
• Organic matter - binding agent. 

• Types of soil structure

• Blocky
• Granular
• Columnar
• No structure
 
• Importance of soil structure to crops:
• To some extent, soil tillabilty is related to structure. There are soils that are relatively
easier to break up because of their structure.
• Soil structure influences soil aeration which is critical during Seed germination and
seedling emergence.
• Chemical Properties
– Soil pH or Soil reaction
– degree of acidity or alkalinity
– Influences nutrient availability
– Negative logarithm of H+ activity
– 7.0 – neutral pH (H+=OH-)

Decrease in soil pH acidity

Increase in soil pH alkalinity
pH Effects
• pH below 5.0 – Al, Fe & Mn become toxic
Ca & Mo deficiency
• pH below 5.5 – Mo, Za, K & S deficiency
• pH 6-7 (neutral)- most nutrients are in available
form
• pH above 7.5 – Al toxicity, salinity, Zn & Fe toxicity
• pH above 8.0- formation of Ca phosphates
• pH above 8.5 – salinity, Zn and Fe deficiency
Cation Exchange Capacity
– ability of soil to absorb and relese cations through
the soil solution
– how? – soil particles can be colloidal ( e.g., clay)
and can contain excess (net) negative charges
– how measured? – sum of exchangeable cations in
a given wt. of soil expresses in me/100 g. soil
Nutrient Holding Capacity - CEC
• Particular me/100g
Humus 600
Good Clay (Montmorillonite) 80 to 150
Not good clay(kaolinite) 3 to 15
Sand 0
Good soil 20 above
Bad soil 5 and below
 Soil Factors
• Essential elements
– macronutrients (major elements); N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, S, C, H and O
- micronutrients (trace elements) ; Fe, Zn, Cl,
Mo, Mn, Cu and B
 Soil factors
• Why they are called essential elements?
1. The element is required for the completion of
the vegetative and reproductive life cycle of the
plant.
2. The element is directly involved in the nutrition
of the plant and performs specific functions
3. The element can not be substituted with
other elements.
• Nitrogen - constituent of all proteins or
enzymes , DNA, chlorophyll, growth
(vegetative) and reproduction
– yellowing of leaves starting from older leaves
(along midribs) since nitrogen is mobile in plants
– Low shoot/root ratio
– NH4, NO3
 Question #8

• The deadly disease of infants caused by high

nitrate levels in drinking water is

a. methemoglobinemia b. cancer
c. diarrhea d. nitrate toxicity
…
ANSWER: a
• Phosphorous - carrier of constituent of DNA energy ( ATP)
for Ps and Res., constituent of DNA and RNA in nucleus ;
important in inheritance
– Cofactor in fat synthesis
– Needed in reproductive growth
– Low Ps and stunted , dark green color of leaves
– Purple coloration of stem or stalk
– Low shoot/root ratio
– Symptoms
- stunted growth, dark green leaves, mobile element,
purple stem/stalk in corn low shoot/root ratio
• Potassium
-carbohydrate metabolism protein synthesis,
water photolysis, stomatal movement, light
absorption
-seed development and quality
-Symptoms
Stunted dark green yellowing of leaves
starting along margin of older leaves
 • What is the
Question #9
purpose of
Calcium to crops?
• Calcium
– Cell division and elongation, cell membrane
stability, middle lamella formation due to Ca-
pectate

– Symptoms
• Failure of terminal buds or root tips to develop
• New leaves do not open, younger tissues because Ca is
immobile, blossom-end root
• Magnesium
– Only mineral as constituent of chlorophyll
molecule
– Important in Ps, chlorophyll formation, activation
of enzyme

– Symptoms
• Interveinal chlorosis in cereals
• Purplish discoloration in cotton
• Sulfur
– Component of essential amino acid, important in
nodule formation

– Symptoms
• Yellowish coloration which starts in younger leaves ,
reduced nodulation in legumes
Boron
Synthesis of ATP, translocation of sugar across cell
membrane, cell division

Symptoms
Cessation of growth followed by death of terminal bud
(immobile )
Chlorosis at base of leaves
Uneven thickness of peel in citrus
Inhibition of growth of pollen tube
• Iron
– Protein in chlorophyll, enzyme activator,
component of cytochrome

– Symptoms
• Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves
• Manganese
– Enzyme activation in carbohydrate metabolism
– Synthesis of riboflavin and carotene, chlorophyll,
water photolysis

– Symptom
• Interveinal chlorosis
Copper
Formation of chlorophyll, enzyme activator

Symptoms
Yellowish leaves followed by die-back, leaf curling in some vegetables

• Zinc
– Synthesis of tryptophan for IAA involved in growth, enzyme activator

– Symptoms
• Rossetting of leaves, appear first on younger leaves
• Chlorine
– Enzyme activator, Ps in oxygen liberation, water
photolysis

– Symptoms
• Wilting
• Molybdenum
– N transformations as nitrate reduction within the
plant
– Symbiotic N fixation in legumes

– symptoms
• Whiptail-tapering and interveinal cholorosis in
cualiflower, poor N utilization
Environmental Factors

Biotic
 Beneficial organisms (Biotic)
– provide beneficial effects on crop production
– includes:
• Pollinators
• Important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity conservation
• Decomposers
• An important part in the food chain which is related to energy flow in a crop
production system.
• A trophic level , usually consisting soil
microorganisms (soil biotic factors)
• Specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter.
• Natural Pest Enemies
• Provide balance in a crop production system particularly in the control of pests
• As bio-control agents against pest
 Pests
– a collective term that includes insect pests,
diseases, weeds, invertebrates and vertebrates
– has always been a major limiting factor in crop
production!
– Damage can go as high as 100%!
 Question #10

• Which is the pest? And which is the bio-con?

In the video presented, what is the term used
in classifying the bio-con?

• Video. . .
 Genetic factors
• Genotypes
• Selection indices of major crops in the
Philippines
• Genetically Modified organisms