Introduction to Fruits and

Vegetables
1122

Steven C Seideman, PhD

Extension Food Processing Specialist
Cooperative Extension Service
University of Arkansas

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 Introduction to Fruits and
Vegetables
 This module covers some of the basic fruits
and vegetables, their structure and
processing.
 It is a brief summary of Chapter 18
“ Vegetables and Fruits” from the book
FOOD SCIENCE by Norman N. Potter and
Joseph H. Hotchkiss. Published by Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers. New York.
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Fruits and Vegetables

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 Vegetables and Fruits
 Fruits and vegetables are cultivated and
processed similarly.
 Many vegetables are fruits by the truest
botanical definition.
 Fruits are defined as “those portions of a
plant which houses the seeds”- Therefore
tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers, okra, sweet
corn etc are considered fruits.

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 Vegetables and Fruits
 The important distinction between fruits
and vegetables is made based on their
usage.
Vegetables are those plant items generally
eaten with the main course of a meal.
Fruits are those plant items commonly
eaten alone or as a dessert.

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 Classification of Certain
Vegetables
 Generally classified by their location on a
plant such as roots, leaves, stems, buds, etc..
 Vegetables/fruits can be classified as earth,
herbage or fruit vegetables.
 The next chart shows the classification
system of vegetables.

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 Fruits
 Fruits are the mature ovaries of plants with their
seeds.
 The edible portion of most fruits is the fleshy part
of the pericarp or vessel surrounding the seeds.
 Fruits in general are acidic and sugary.
 Fruits can be classified by botanical structure,
chemical composition and climatic requirements.

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 Fruit Classifications
 Berries- usually quite small- grapes, cranberries
 Melons-large and have a tough outer rind-
watermelons, cantelope
 Drupes-contain single pits- apricots, cherries, peaches
and plums.
 Pomes-contain many pits- apples, pears.
 Citrus Fruits-high citric acid-oranges, grapefruit,
lemons
 Tropical fruits-require warm temperatures- bananas,
dates, figs, pineapple, papayas, mangos
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 Composition
 Fruits and vegetables have similar compositions.
 They are very high in water content (70-85%),
relatively high in carbohydrates but low in fat (less
than 0.5%) and protein (less than 3.5%) and usually
contain useful vitamins.
 The carbohydrate portion can be further broken down
into digestible and indigestible parts (sugars and
starches vs pectins and cellulose material).
 Vitamin A is found in yellow-orange fruits and
vegetables and leafy, green vegetables.
 Vitamin C is found in citrus fruits, tomatoes and green,
leafy vegetables.
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 Structural Features
 The structural material of the edible portion
of most fruits and vegetables is the
parenchyma cell. Although parenchyma
cells of different fruits and vegetables differ
somewhat is gross size and appearance, all
have essentially the same fundamental
structure. See diagram on next page.

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 Structural Features
 Cells- The cells of the edible portion of most fruits
and vegetables are characterized by a large, water
filled vacuole. Sugars and other water-soluble
compounds may also exist in this area. Cellulosic
material (complex carbohydrates) surround the
vacuoles and also form the cell wall. Protein is
also in the cell walls. The next table shows the
Structure and Chemical Components of Plant
Cells.

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 Texture
 The range of textures encountered in fresh
and cooked vegetables and fruit is great
and, to a large extent, can be explained by
changes in specific cellular components.
Since plant tissues generally contain more
than two-thirds water, the relationships
between these components and water
further determine textural differences.
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 Textural Features
 Turgor- The rigidity of cells is due to being
filled with water. The cell membranes are
elastic and “give and take” with changes in
water content. Living plants have a high
turgor, resulting in crispness. When plant
tissues are damaged or destroyed by
storage, freezing, cooking or other causes,
turgor pressure is lost, leaving the tissue
soft and wilted.
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 Textural Features
 Cellulose, Hemicellulose and Lignin- Cell
walls in young plants are very thin and are
composed largely of cellulose. As the plant
ages, cell walls tend to thicken and become
higher in hemicellulose and lignin. These
materials are fibrous and tough and are not
significantly softened by cooking.

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 Textural Features
 Pectin and related substances are complex
polymers of sugar-acid derivatives.
 Pectins are the cement-like substance found
especially in the middle lamella which helps
hold plant cells together.
 Fruits and vegetables contain a natural
occurring enzyme, pectin methyl esterase
that hydrolyzes pectin.

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 Textural Features
 It is often desirable to firm the texture of fruits and
vegetables.
 By adding calcium ions to fruits and vegetables
before processing, calcium pectates are formed
from pectins that increase structural integrity.
 Thus it is a common commercial practice to add
low levels of calcium salts to tomatoes, apples and
other fruits and vegetables prior to canning and
freezing.
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Color and Color Changes

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 Color and Color Changes
 Much of the appeal of fruits and vegetables
in our diets is due to their desirable colors.
 The pigments and color precursors found in
fruits and vegetables occur in the cellular
plastid inclusions. (e.g. chloroplasts).

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Photo courtesy of USDA 26
 Chlorophylls
 Chlorophylls are largely contained within the
chloroplasts and have a primary role in the
photosynthetic production of carbohydrates from
carbon dioxide and water.
 The bright green color of leaves is largely due to
oil-soluble chlorophylls.
 When cells are destroyed by aging, processing or
cooking, the proteins are denatured and the
chlorophyll in changed to pheophytin which is olive
green to brown in color.
 For this reason, peas, beans, spinach and other green
vegetables lose their bright green upon cooking.
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 Carotenoids
 Pigments belonging to the carotenoid group are fat
soluble and range in color from yellow through
orange to red.
 Important carotenoids include the orange of carrot,
corn, apricot, peach, citrus fruits and squash; the red
lycopene of tomatoes, watermelon and apricot and
the yellow-orange xanthophyll of corn, peach,
paprika and squash.
 In food processing, the carotenoids are fairly
resistant to heat, changes in pH and water leaching
since they are oil soluble. However, they are very
sensitive to oxidation which results in both color
loss and destruction of vitamin A.
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 Anthocyanins
 These pigments represent a group known as
flavonoids that are water soluble and commonly
present in the juices of fruits and vegetables.
 They range in color from purple, blue to red found
in grapes, berries, plums and cherries.
 The color expressed is pH dependent (violet to
blue in alkaline media to become red upon the
addition of natural occurring or intentionally
added acid).
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 Flavonoids
 The yellow flavonoids are structurally related to
anthocyanins and comprise a large group of
chemicals found in plant foods. They are also pH
dependent tending toward a deeper yellow in
alkaline media.
 Thus potatoes and apples tend to become
somewhat yellow when cooked in water with a pH
of 8.0 or higher. Acidification to pH of 6.0 or
lower favors a whiter color.
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 Tannins
 Tannins are complex mixtures of phenolic
compounds found in plants.
 Under most circumstances, they are colorless but
on reaction with metal ions, they form a range of
dark-colored complexes which range from red,
brown, green or black.
 Water soluble tannins appear in the juices
squeezed from grapes, apples and other fruits as
well as in the brews of tea and coffee.
 If in high enough levels, can contribute an
astringent flavor note.
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Activities of Living Systems

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 Activities in Living Systems
 Fruits and vegetables continue to respire after
harvest meaning they take in oxygen and give off
carbon dioxide, water and heat.
 The moisture and heat buildup can cause serious
damage to fruits and vegetables unless quickly
controlled.
 Numerous changes occur to starches, sugars,
pectins etc immediately after harvest.

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 Activities in Living Systems
 The quality decline in stored respiring fruits and
vegetables is termed “senescence” and results
from the continued enzymatic activity.
 The two primary factors that influence senescence
rate are temperature and composition of the
storage atmosphere.
 Reduced temperatures, lower oxygen rates and
raised carbon dioxide levels reduce the rate of
senescence and increase storage times.
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The Harvest and Processing of
Vegetables

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 Varietal Differences
 Food scientists and food processors
appreciate the substantial differences that
cultivars of a given vegetable possess.
 In addition to differences in response to
weather and pest resistance, cultivars of a
given vegetable differ in size, shape, time of
maturity and resistance to physical damage.

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 Harvesting and Preprocessing
Considerations
 When vegetables are maturing in the field, they
are changing from day to day. There is a time
when the vegetables will be at peak quality from
the standpoint of color, texture and flavor.
 Because the peak quality lasts only briefly,
harvesting and processing of several vegetables,
including tomatoes, corn and peas, are rigidly
scheduled to capture this peak quality.

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 Vegetable Processing
 Washing-vegetables are washed not only to
remove field soil and surface
microorganisms but also fungicides,
insecticides and other pesticides.
 Skin removal-There are numerous methods
of removing the skins from vegetables
ranging from a hot alkaline soak that softens
the skin to the use of steam under pressure.
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 Vegetable Processing
 Cutting and Trimming- Many vegetables
require various kinds of cutting, stemming,
pitting or coring.

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 Vegetable Processing
 Blanching-Most vegetables that do not receive a
high-temperature heat treatment (as in normal
canning) must be heated to a minimal temperature
to inactivate natural enzymes before processing or
storing even when frozen. This is known as
“blanching”.
 Table 18.4 shows minimum blanch times of some
vegetables.
 Too little blanch time is ineffective and too much
time damages vegetables by excessive cooking.
 If not blanched properly, off-flavors, off-colors
and poor textures will develop.
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 Vegetable Processing
 Canning-Canning refers to the science of
placing the desired vegetable in a can,
evacuating the air, sealing it and heating to
a temperature to totally destroy all living
organisms.

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Fruit Processing

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 Varietal Differences
 As with vegetables, the diversity of kinds of
fruit is further enlarged by the numerous
cultivars of a given fruit.
 For example, there are over 1,000 varieties
of apples and over 3,000 varieties of pears.
 Although some fruit is marketed fresh, most
is further processed into a wide range of
products.

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 Fruit Quality
 Fruit quality depends on tree stock, growing
practices and weather conditions.
 Most important to quality is the degree of maturity
and ripeness when picked and the method of
harvesting.
 Maturity is the condition when the fruit is ready to
eat or, if picked, will become ready to eat on further
ripening.
 Ripeness is that optimum condition when color,
flavor and texture have developed to the peak.
 Some fruits are picked when they are mature but not
yet ripe (e.g. cherries, peaches).
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 Fruit Harvesting and Processing
 Much of the harvesting of most fruits is still
done by hand. This labor may represent
about half the cost of growing fruit.
 Washing-fruit is washed to remove soil,
microorganisms and pesticide residues.
 Sorting- Field fruit must be sorted by size
and quality which defines the next steps in
processing.

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Fruit Harvesting and Processing
 Freezing- Large amounts of fruits are frozen each
year for further use. Freezing is considered far
superior to canning for firmness.
 Blanching- Fruits are generally not heat blanched
because the heat causes loss of turgor, resulting in
sogginess and juice drainage after thawing.
Instead, chemical antioxidants are used. If
blanching is to be done, calcium salts are added to
the blanching water to form calcium pectates.
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Beverages

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 Why are Beverages Consumed?
 Nutritive value
 Thirst-quenching properties
 Stimulating effects
 Pleasure

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 Major Beverage Consumption
 Beverage  Gallons/person/year
Carbonated Soft Drinks 48.8
Coffee 24.3
Milk 23.7
Beer 22.1
Bottled Water 16.0
Selected Fruit Juices 14.2
Tea 8.4
Fruit drinks, cocktails 7.9
Wine 1.9
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 Juice Processing
 Extraction-Fruit is pressed or ground to
yield the juice.
 Clarification- Resulting juice may contain
small particles of pulp and other debris.
Typically, commercial enzymes are added
to the juice to digest the suspended
particles. Then the juice is centrifuged to
remove the denser particles.
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 Juice Processing- Continued
 Deaeration- Air is removed to prevent
oxidation and losses in vitamin C.
 Pasteurization- performed to reduce
microbial counts and inactivate enzymes.

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 Fruit Juice Concentrates
 Since most juices have a very low solids
content, the juice may be concentrated to
provide a more valuable product for
shipping. The water that is evaporated
contains significant amounts of volatile
flavor compounds. These are recaptured
and added back to the juice or used as
flavorings for other products.
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Organic Foods

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 Organic Foods
 “Organic” is a labeling term that denotes
products produced under the authority of
the Organic Foods Production Act. The
principle guidelines for organic production
are to use materials and practices that
enhance the ecological balance of natural
systems and that integrates the parts of the
farming system into an ecological whole.
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 Organic Foods
 Organic does not refer to the food itself but to how
it is produced. Organic food production is based
on a system of farming that maintains and
replenishes the fertility of the soil. Organic foods
are produced without the use of synthetic
pesticides and fertilizers. Organic foods are
minimally processed to maintain the integrity of
the food without artificial ingredients,
preservatives or irradiation.

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 Is Organically Grown Produce
Healthier than other Produce?
 Certified organic produce is not essentially
healthier than produce that has been grown
under non-organic conditions. The
nutritional content of a particular vegetable
doesn’t change. But the lack of synthetic
pesticide residues on organically grown
produce may make for a safer product.
Organic products may also have higher
incidences of pathogenic bacteria.
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 Organic Regulations

 The USDA regulations on the definition,

labeling and requirements for organic can
be found at www.ams.usda.gov/nop.

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Biotechnology

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 Biotechnology
 Agricultural Biotechnology is a collection of
scientific techniques, including genetic engineering,
that are used to create, improve or modify plants,
animals and microorganisms. Using conventional
techniques such as selective breeding, scientists
have been working to improve plants and animals
for human benefit for hundreds of years. Modern
techniques now enable scientists to move genes
(and therefore desirable traits) in ways they could
not before and with greater ease and precision.

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 Biotechnology
 Biotechnology is literally the insertion of
pieces of DNA into a plants DNA. Thus, the
inheritable and specific properties and traits
can be incorporated into the plants genetics.
 Desirable traits such as resistance to plant
diseases and viruses or quality and storage
attributes can be specifically “engineered”
into plants.
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 Benefits of Biotechnology
 Crop resistance to disease, pests etc
 Improved shelf life of foods
 Optimization of the enzymes used in food
processing
 Environmental impacts through lower
energy costs and less pesticide/ herbicide
use.
 Improved health through dietary impacts.

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 Negatives of Biotechnology
 Who owns the control of patented genes
and biotechnology techniques?

 Cross-pollination of adjacent crops.

 Allergenicity of new proteins.

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Crops that have been Genetically
Modified
 Soybeans-reduced
saturated fat
 Soybeans-resistant to
pests
 Soybeans- resistant to
herbicides
 Corn-resistant to pests
 Corn-resistant to
herbicides
 Tomatoes- resistant to
pests
 Tomatoes-delayed
ripening
 Golden rice-beta-
carotene added to rice
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 Conclusions
 In this module, you should have learned
about;
1)The structure, composition and color
changes of fruits and vegetables.
2)The basic operations of fruit, vegetable and
beverage processing.
3)What the terms “organic” and
“biotechnology” refer to.

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