HOMEOSTASIS

DR ARPANA HAZARIKA
ASSOCIATE PROF
DEPT OF PHYSIOLOGY
WHAT IS PHYSIOLOGY
Physiology in simple terms refers to the study
of normal functioning of the living structures.
The human physiology is concerned with the
way of various system of the human body function
and the way each contributes to the function of the
body as a whole in other words the human
physiology with specific characteristic and
mechanism which help in adaptation and
homeostasis which are fundamental features of
life
The vast field of physiology can be divided into viral
physiology,bacterial physiology,cellular physiology,plant
physiology,human physiology.
In human physiology we attempt to explain the specific
characteristics and mechanism of the human body that
make it a living being.The very fact that we remain alive is
the result of complex control system for hunger makes us
seek food,fear make us seek refuge.Sometimes of cold
makes us lookfor warmth.Other forces us to seek
fellowship and to reproduce
CELL AS THE LIVING UNIT OF THE BODY
• The basic unit of the body is the cell.Each organ is an
aggregate of many different cells held together by
Intercellular supporting structures
Each type of cell is specially adapted to perform
one or few particular function
Eg .red blood cell whose function is transport of O2 from
the lungs to the tissues.there are 75 trillion other cells that
perform functions different from those of the red cells
The entire body contains about 100 trillion cells
Although different cells perform different function they
have same basic characteristic .In all cells oxygen reacts
with carbohydrate,fat,protein to release energy required for
cell function
Almost all cells have the ability to reproduce additionals
cells of their own ,when one type of cell are destroyed ,the
remaining cells usually generate new cells
THE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
About 60% of the adult human body is fluid mainly water
solution of ions and other substances,Most of the fliuds
is inside cell and is called intracellular fluid about one third
is in space outside the cell and is called extracellular fluid
This extracellular fluid is in constant motion through out
the body
In the extra cellular fluid are the ions needed by the
cells,To maintain life,thus all cell live in essentially in the
same environment
The extracellular fluid contains contains large amount
of sodium chloride and bicarbonate ions plus nutrients to
the cells,cells such as oxygen.glucose.fatty acids,
and amino acids.It also contain carbondioxide that is being
tranported to the kidney for excretion.
The intracellular fluid contains large amount of potassium
magnessium and phosphate ions instead of sodium and
Chloride ions found in the extracellular fluid
Several mechanism maintain the ion concentration
Difference between the extracellular and intracellular fluid
What is homeostasis
The term homeostasis is used by physiologist to mean
maintenance of nearly constant condition in the internal
environment[milleu interieur].Essentially all organs and
tissues of the body perform function that help maintain
these constant condition.For instance the lungs provide
oxygen to the extracellular fluid to replenish the oxygen
used by the cells,the kidneys maintain constant ion
concentration and the gastrointestinal system provides
nutrition
•
The kidneys play a vital role in maintenance of
homeostasis.It maintains the extracellular
volume,eclectrolyteconcentration,balance,removes
waste product.
And also produces hormone that stimulate red cell
production,It also regulates blood pressure.It
produces calcitrol which promotes reabsorption of
phosphate and instentinal reabsorption of calcium
Respiratory system removes oxygen to the tissues
and removes carbondioxide ,it has also immune function
Large number of tissue macrophages are present as
Integral component of the alveolar walls.they can
phagocytize particles entrapped in the alveoli.
lungs has also metabolic function ,angiotensin
converting enzyme secreted from the endothelial cell
convert angiotensinogen I to angiotensin II,
It also maintains acid base balance by eleminating
C02.
Blood circulatory system

Extracellular fluid is transported to all parts of the body

In two stages.the first stage is flow of blood through out th
body and second movement of blood between the
capillaries and the intracellular space
As blood passes through the capillaries continous
exchange of extracellular fluid also occurs between plasma
protein of the blood and interstial fluid that fills the
intracellular spaces.the walls of the capillaries are
permeable to most molecules present in the plasma of
blood except the plasma protein which are too large to
readily pass through the capillaries
•
therefore lage amount of fluid and its dissolved constituent
diffuse back and forth between the blood and tissue
space.thus the extracellular fluid and intercellular is
continually mixed in the body thereby mantaining
homogenity of extracellular fluid throughout the body
SPECIAL SENSES
Vision,hearing,taste smell also helps in maintaining
Homeostasis by helping in motor and sensory function’
REGULATION OF BODY FUNCTION
NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is composed of three major parts
sensory
motor
central nervous system
the sensory receptors detect the state of the body or the
state of the surrounding.the receptor of skin apprises the
bodywhen an object touches the body.the eyes are sensory
organs which give visual image of the surrounding.the ears
are also sensory organs,the brain can store
information,generate thoughts,create ambitions.
HORMONE SYSTEM
There are eight major endocrine glands that secrete
chemical substances called hormones.Hormones are
transported in the extracellular fluid to all parts of the body
to help regulate body function
thyroid hormones increases most of the body function
insulin controls glucose metabolism adrenocortical
hormone controls sodium.potassium.protein metabolism
parathyroid hormones controlls bone calcium and
phosphate
IMMUNE SYSTEM
• The immune system consist of the white blood cells,tissue
cells derived from white blood cells,the thymus,lymph
node and lymph vessels that protect the body from
pathogens such as bacteria,viruses,parasites and fungi.
• the immune system provides a mechanism to the body
• to distinguish foreigncell from own cell destroys invading
cells by phagocytosis
REPRODUCTION
• Reproduction is not considered a homeostatic function,but
it generates new beings to take the place of those
dying,thus all body structures are designed that they help
to maintain the automaticity and continuity of life.
Control system of the body
The human body has thousands of control systems.The
most intricate of these are genetic control system that
operate in all cells to help control in all cells to help control
interelation between the organs.the respiratory system
operating in association with the nervous system regulates
te concentration of carbon dioxide in the extracellular
fluid.The liver and pancreas regulate the concentration of
glucose in extracellular fluid and kidneys
regulate the concentration of hydrogen,sodium,
CHARACTERISTIC OF CONTROL SYSTEM
Negative feedback nature of most control system-
of the body act by negative feedback which can be
reviewed
• eg
high conconcentration of Co2
↓
increase pulmonary ventillation
↓
decreases extracellular CO2
 C02 concentration is low
↓
gives feed back
↓
increase concentration CO2
In the arterial pressure regulating mechanism a high
pressure causes a series of reaction that promotes low
pressure .on the other hand if there is low pressure, series
of reaction takes place that elavates the pressure in both
the instances the effect is negative to initiating effect
GAIN OF A CONTROL SYSTEM
The degree of effectiveness of a control system maintains
constant condition to be determined by the
gain of negative feedback.
eg let us assume that a large volume of blood is transfused
to a person whose baroreceptors are not working and
arterial pressure rises from normal level of
100mmHg to 175mmHg.but if same baroreceptor are
functioning the pressure rises by 25mmHg.Thus the feed
back control has caused a correction of -50mmHg from
175mmHg to 125mmHg.There is increase +25mmHg
pressure which is called error which means control system
is not 100% effective in preventing change.
the gain of this system is
GAIN=correction
error
Thus the baroreceptor system examples ,the correction
is -50mmHg and the error persisting is +25mmHg.
therefore the gain of arterial pressure is -50 divided by
+25=-2
Why body control system operate by negative feedback
rather than positive feedback.?
Positive feedback does not lead to stability but lead
to instability and in some cases causes death
Eg the heart of a healthy human being pumps about
5liters of blood per minute,If the person is suddenly
decreased 2litres the amount of blood is decreased to such
a low level that enough blood is not available
for the heart to pump effectively.As a result the arterial
pressure falls,the flow of blood through coronary blood
vessel decreases,weakening of heart
POSITIVE FEEDBACK CAN SOMETIMES BE USEFUL
Blood clotting is an example of a valuable use of positive
feedback,when a blood vessel is ruptured and a clot
begins to form,multiple enzymes,called clotting factors
are activated within the clot itself,.Some of these enzymes
act on inactivated enzymes of the immediately adjacent
blood clotting.This process until hole in the vessel is
plugged and bleeding no longer occurs
but on some occasion unusual clot occurs which
initiates heart attack blocking the coronary artery
child birth is another instance in which positive feedback
plays a valuable role,when uterine contraction becomes
strong for the baby ,head begins to push through the uterus
causing even more powerful contractions,thus the
uterine contraction stretch the cervix and cervical stretch
causes stronger contraction.when the process becomes
powerful enough baby is seen
Another important use of positive feedback is the
generation of nerve signal,that is when membrane this
causes slight leakage of sodium ion through sodium
chanels in the nerve membrane .The sodium entering
the nerve fibre the changes the membrane potential
which in turn causes more opening of chanel more change
of potential still more opening of chanels and
more change of potential.thus a slight leak of sodium
becomes explosion of sodium ion entering the interior
of the nerve fibre which create nerve action potential.this
process continues again and again until nerve signal
goes all the way to the end of the fibre
• More complex type of control system
The brain uses a principle called feed forward conrol to
cause required muscle contractions.That is sensory nerve
signals from the moving parts of the body apprise the
brain whether the movement is performed correctly.If not
the brain corrects the feedforward signal then sends it to
the muscle.If still further correction is necessary then it will
be done again for subsequent movements