VIP Nuclear Basics

Radiation and Nuclear Basics
1
Electrons
• Very small
• Point-like particles (i.e.nothing inside an electron)
• Very light ~ 1/2000th of proton mass
• Negatively charged (-1 elementary charge)
• Electrons occupy almost all the space in the atom (orbiting the
nucleus like the earth and other planets orbit the sun)
• Have almost none of the mass of the atom
• All of chemistry has to do with electrons from different atoms

interacting with each other
The Nucleus
• Made up of protons and neutrons
• Almost all of the mass of the atom is

concentrated in the nucleus.
• >99.9% of the known mass in the universe.
• Occupies almost none of the volume of the

atom.
• Radius < 1/10,000
• Volume < 1/1,000,000,000,000
The nucleus is the source
of almost all the things we
commonly think of as
being radioactive.
The Nucleus Protons
• Positively charged
(+1 elementary charge)
• Size ~ 1 fm (10-15 m)
• Mass 938 MeV/c2 =1
Neutrons
• Neutral
(0 charge)
• Size ~ 1 fm (10-15 m)
• Mass 939 MeV/c2 ~1
Neutrons are slightly more massive than

the protons!!!
This has huge consequences for us!
Standard Model: quark structure
Neutron and proton are … proton (uud)
very close relatives … neutron (udd)
Many laws allow neutrons to `change into’

into protons … change a d-quark into a u-
quark (or vice versa)
… beta-decay
The half life of a free neutron (i.e., one not inside a
nucleus) is only about 12 minutes!!!
Mass Neutron = 939.565330 MeV/c2
Mass Proton = 938.271998 MeV/c2 E = mc 2
But …
Inside a nucleus … neutrons are stable
Imagine … if they were not!
Then in ~ 1-2 hours the entire universe
would be made of Hydrogen
The half life of a free proton is > 1031 years

Inside some nuclei protons can ‘decay’ into neutrons
Energy Levels
Yet something interesting happens as
the electron travels from energy
level to energy level.
If an electron is EXCITED, that means

energy is ABSORBED and
therefore a PHOTON is absorbed.
If an electron is DE-EXCITED, that

means energy is RELEASED and
therefore a photon is released.
We call these leaps from energy level

to energy level QUANTUM LEAPS.
Since a PHOTON is emitted that

means that it MUST have a certain
wavelength.
Energy of the Photon
We can calculate the ENERGY
of the released or absorbed
photon provided we know the
initial and final state of the
electron that jumps energy
levels.
Energy Level Diagrams To represent these
transitions we can
construct an ENERGY
LEVEL DIAGRAM
Note: It is very important to understanding that these transitions DO NOT

have to occur as a single jump! It might make TWO JUMPS to get back to
ground state. If that is the case, TWO photons will be emitted, each with a
different wavelength and energy.
Example
An electron releases energy
as it moves back to its
ground state position. As a
result, photons are
emitted. Calculate the
POSSIBLE wavelengths of
the emitted photons.
Notice that they give us the

energy of each energy
level. This will allow us to This particular sample will release three
calculate the CHANGE in different wavelengths, with TWO being
ENERGY that goes to the the visible range ( RED, VIOLET) and
emitted photon.
ONE being OUTSIDE the visible range
(INFRARED)
Energy levels Application: Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is an optical technique by which we can
IDENTIFY a material based on its emission
spectrum. It is heavily used in Astronomy and
Remote Sensing. There are too many subcategories
to mention here but the one you are probably the
most familiar with are flame tests.
When an electron gets excited inside

a SPECIFIC ELEMENT, the electron
releases a photon. This photon’s
wavelength corresponds to the
energy level jump and can be used to
indentify the element.
Nuclear Physics - Radioactivity
Before we begin to discuss the specifics of radioactive
decay we need to be certain you understand the
proper NOTATION that is used.
To the left is your typical radioactive
isotope.
Top number = mass number = #protons
+ neutrons. It is represented by the
letter "A“
Bottom number = atomic number = # of

protons in the nucleus. It is represented
by the letter "Z"
Nuclear Physics – Notation & Isotopes
An isotope is when you have
the SAME ELEMENT, yet
it has a different MASS.
This is a result of have
extra neutrons. Since
Carbon is always going to
be element #6, we can
write Carbon in terms of its
mass instead.
Carbon - 12
Carbon - 14
Einstein – Energy/Mass Equivalence
In 1905, Albert Einstein publishes a 2nd major
theory called the Energy-Mass
Equivalence in a paper called, “Does the
inertia of a body depend on its energy
content?”
Einstein – Energy/Mass Equivalence
Looking closely at Einstein’s equation we see that he
postulated that mass held an enormous amount of
energy within itself. We call this energy BINDING
ENERGY or Rest mass energy as it is the energy
that holds the atom together when it is at rest. The
large amount of energy comes from the fact that the
speed of light is squared.
Energy Unit Check
Mass Defect
The nucleus of the atom is held together by a STRONG NUCLEAR

FORCE.
The more stable the nucleus, the more energy needed to break it apart.
Energy need to break to break the nucleus into protons and neutrons is
called the Binding Energy
Einstein discovered that the mass of the separated particles is greater
than the mass of the intact stable nucleus to begin with.
This difference in mass (Dm) is called the mass defect.
Mass Defect - Explained
The extra mass turns into energy

holding the atom together.
Mass Defect –
Example
Stable Nuclides
long ranged
electrostatic
forces p
Line of stability
n
short ranged
nuclear forces
Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 25

Stable and Unstable Nuclides
Too many
neutrons
for stability
Too many
protons
for stability

Radioactive Decay
Fission
The nucleus is divided into two parts, fission fragments. and
3-4 neutrons. Examples: Cf-252 (spontaneous), U-235 (induced)
a-decay
The nucleus emits an a-particle (He-4). Examples: Ra-226, Rn-222
b-decay
Too many neutrons results in b- -decay. n=>p++e-+n. Example:H-3,
C-14, I-131.
Too many protons results in b+ -decay
p+=>n+ e++n
Examples: O-16, F-18
or electron capture (EC).
p+ + e-=>n+n
Examples: I-125, Tl-201
Radioactive Decay
It is impossible to know at what time a certain radioactive nucleus
will decay. It is, however possible to determine the probability l
of decay in a certain time. In a sample of N nuclei the number of
decays per unit time is then:

Some Isotopes & Their Half Lives
ISOTOPE HALF- APPLICATIONS
LIFE
Uranium billions Natural uranium is comprised of several different isotopes.

of years When enriched in the isotope of U-235, it’s used to power
nuclear reactor or nuclear weapons.
Carbon-14 5730 y Found in nature from cosmic interactions, used to “carbon
date” items and as radiolabel for detection of tumors.
Cesium-137 30.2 y Blood irradiators, tumor treatment through external
exposure. Also used for industrial radiography.
Hydrogen-3 12.3 y Labeling biological tracers.
Irridium-192 74 d Implants or "seeds" for treatment of cancer. Also used for

industrial radiography.
Molybdenum-99 66 h Parent for Tc-99m generator.
Technicium-99m 6 h Brain, heart, liver (gastoenterology), lungs, bones, thyroid,

and kidney imaging, regional cerebral blood flow, etc.
39
Activity
The number of decaying nuclei per unit of time
1 Bq (becquerel)=1 per second

1 Bq is a small quantity
 3000 Bq in the body from natural

sources
 20 000 000-1000 000 000 Bq in nuclear
medicine examinations

Multiple & Prefixes (Activity)
Multiple Prefix Abbreviation
1 - Bq
1 000 000 Mega (M) MBq
1 000 000 000 Giga (G) GBq
1 000 000 000 000 Tera (T) TBq

The Nucleus
Many elements have several stable nuclei with the

same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons …
same name
same chemistry Isotopes
different mass
44
45
The Periodic Table of the Elements
Chart of the Nuclei
6 8
C 9
C 10
C 11
C 12
C 13
C 14
C 15
C 16
C 17
C
5 B B B B B B B B B
Z = No. of Protons
7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
4 Be
6
Be
7
Be 8
Be 9 10
Be Be
11
Be 12 14
Be
3 5
Li
6
Li 7Li 8Li 9
Li 10Li 11Li
2 3
He 4He 5He 6He 7He 8
He 9He
1 1
H 2
D 3
T
0 n
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
N = No. of Neutrons
Chart
of the
Nuclei
The Landscape
~300 stable
~ 7000 unstable … radioactive.
The Amount of Radioactivity is
NOT Necessarily Related to Size
• Specific activity is the amount of

radioactivity found in a gram of
material.
• Radioactive material with long half-

lives have low specific activity.
1 gram of Cobalt-60
has the same activity as
1800 tons of natural Uranium
49
For Example: Suppose we have
1,000,000,000 atoms of material A with a half life of 1 second
and
1,000,000,000 atoms of material B with a half life of 1 year
(real sources have many more atoms in them)
Suppose they both decay by alpha emission.
In the First Second

Substance A: Half the nuclei will decay
… 500,000,000 alpha particles will come zipping out at you.
1 year = 365 days * 24 hours * 60 minutes * 60 seconds = 31,536,000 seconds
In the First Second for substance B

Only ~ 500,000,000 / 31,536,000 = 16 nuclei will decay
… only 16 alpha particles will come zipping at you
50
On the other hand …
In 10 seconds … almost all of the radioactivity in substance A is gone away
But it takes years for the activity of substance B to go away!
Nuclear Bombs …
The fissile material (U or Pu) has a long half-life. Low specific activity. Not
much activity on the outside.
Dirty Bombs …
The radioactive material wrapped around the explosive would probably
have a much shorter half-life. Perhaps significant activity on the outside.
51
Types of Radioactivity
Five Common Types
Alpha Decay Each type of radiation has
Beta Decay different properties which affect
the hazards they pose, the
Gamma Decay
detection mechanism and the
Fission shielding required to stop them.
Neutron Emission
Each of the particles emitted in the decay carries a lot of

kinetic energy. Damage can be caused when this energy
is absorbed in a human cell.
52
Alpha Decay
An alpha particle () is an energetic, He nucleus
(42He2)
Alpha decay mostly occurs for heavy nuclei
Example
238
Pu  23492U + 42He
94
Half-life: 88 years
Energy  =5.56 MeV
53
Alpha Decay Applications
Americium-241, an alpha-emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles

ionize air between a small gap. A small current is passed through that ionized air.
Smoke particles from fire that enter the air gap reduce the current flow, sounding
the alarm.
Alpha Decay
Very easy to shield

A sheet of paper, skin, or a few cm (~inch)
of air will stop an alpha particle
External Hazard: Low

Internal Hazard: High
55
Alpha Decay
238
94 Pu144  234
92U142 + a
• Parent nucleus 23894Pu144

• Daughter Nucleus 23492U142
– Often the daughter nucleus is also
radioactive and will itself subsequently
decay.
– Decay chains or families (e.g. uranium,
thorium decay chains).
56
238
94 Pu  234
92U +  t1/2 = 88 yrs Decay Chains
234
92 U  230
90Th +  t1/2 = 2.5 105 yrs
230
90 Th  22688Ra +  t1/2 = 8.0 104 yrs
226
88 Ra  22286Rn +  t1/2 = 1.6 103 yrs
222
86 Rn  218
84Po +  t1/2 = 3.8 days
218
84 Po  214
82Pb +  t1/2 = 3.1 min
214
82 Pb  214
83Bi +  t1/2 = 27 min
214
83 Bi  214
84Po +  t1/2 = 20 min
214
84 Po  210
82Pb +  t1/2 = 160 s 57
Decay Chains
210
82 Pb  21083Bi +  t1/2 = 22 yrs
210
83 Bi  21084Po +  t1/2 = 5 days
210
84 Po  20682Pb +  t1/2 = 138 days
206
Pb is STABLE
82
58
Decay Chains
Pu
U
Th
Ra
Rn
Po
Pb
Hg
Au
59
Beta Decay A beta-particle is an electron (e) or
its anti-particle the positron (e+)
• The neutron and the proton are very similar to

each other (very closely related).
• A neutron can ‘change into’ a proton, or vice
versa.
• When this happens, an energetic electron (or
positron) is emitted.
• This is called beta-decay n  p + e -
+
p  n + e+ + 
60
Beta Decay
There aren’t really any
applications of beta decay
other than Betavoltaics which
makes batteries from beta
emitters. Beta decay, did
however, lead us to discover
the neutrino.
Beta Decay
In terms of nuclei beta-decay looks like
137
55 Cs82  13756Ba81 + e- + 
As in the case of alpha decay the daughter nuclei are

usually radioactive and will themselves decay.
• Beta-particles are HARDER to stop
Since the electron is lighter than an alpha-particle
and carries less charge.
• Therefore, the range of a beta-particle is greater and63

Beta-Decay
• Beta-particles are HARDER to stop
Since the electron is lighter than an alpha-
particle and carries less charge.
• Therefore, the range of a beta-particle is greater

and it takes more shielding to stop beta-
particles (electrons or positrons) than alpha
particles
~ few mm or 1 cm of lead
~ few feet of air
64
Beta Plus Decay - Positron
Isotopes which undergo this decay
and thereby emit positrons include
carbon-11, potassium-40, nitrogen-
13, oxygen-15, fluorine-18, and
iodine-121.
Beta Plus Decay Application - Positron
emission tomography (PET)
Positron emission tomography
(PET) is a nuclear medicine
imaging technique which
produces a three-dimensional
image or picture of functional
processes in the body. The
system detects pairs of gamma
rays emitted indirectly by a
positron-emitting radionuclide
(tracer), which is introduced
into the body on a biologically
active molecule. Images of
tracer concentration in 3-
dimensional space within the
body are then reconstructed by
computer analysis.
Gamma-Decay
• A beta-decay or alpha-decay typically leaves the
daughter nucleus in a highly excited state.
• To get to the ground state the nucleus (rapidly …
almost instantly) emits one or more gamma-rays
• Gamma-rays are a very energetic form of light.

More energy and more penetrating than x-rays.
• No charge
• Much more penetrating than either alpha or beta.
• Few inches of Pb, many feet of air
67
Gamma-Decay
• Gamma-ray energies are characteristic of the nucleus.

• Measure the energies … identify the nucleus.
(just like atoms or molecules give off characteristic
colors of light).
Measuring the gamma-ray is by far the best and easiest
way to measure what type of radioactive substance you
are dealing with.
68
Gamma Decay
Gamma Decay Applications
Gamma rays are the most dangerous type of radiation
as they are very penetrating. They can be used to
kill living organisms and sterilize medical equipment
before use. They can be used in CT Scans and
radiation therapy.
Gamma Rays are used to view stowaways inside of a truck. This technology
is used by the Department of Homeland Security at many ports of entry to
the US.
Fission
What holds nuclei together?
• Protons repel each other (opposites attract, like
repel)
• Coulomb Force
Some other force must hold nuclei together
The STRONG FORCE
• Attractive and Stronger than the Coulomb Force
• But short range
71
Fission
What happens if you have a lot of protons (i.e in a
heavy nucleus)?
…Eventually the Coulomb repulsion will win
… and the nucleus will fall apart into two smaller
(radioactive!!) nuclei.
FISSION
An enormous amount of energy is released.
This energy is utilized in power plants and in fission
bombs.
72
Fission
The heavy parent
nucleus fissions …
into two lighter fission

fragment nuclei …
Plus some left over bits Sometimes this

… energetic neutrons process happens
spontaneously …
Example: sometimes you can
252
Cf is a spontaneous fission source … ‘poke’ at the
nucleus and induce
it to fission 73
Fission …Fission Fragments
Are emitted with a huge energy but stop very quickly
(very short range).
Are all radioactive nuclei and will decay usually by
beta-and gamma-decay
Light
fragment Heavy
Probability 
They have a broad fragment
range of masses
Mass  74
Induced Fission
Some nuclei can be made to fission when struck by
something …
Usually the something is a neutron
Example: 235
U + n  fission
Remember … in the fission process extra neutrons

are released
If some of these strike other 235U nuclei … they can
induce another fission
75
Induced Fission
Chain Reaction
Controlled … nuclear power plant … exactly one

neutron per fission induces another fission.
Uncontrolled … nuclear bomb … more than one

neutron per reaction induces another fission
76
Significant Nuclear Reactions -
Fusion
nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-charged atomic nuclei

join together to form a heavier nucleus. It is accompanied by the release or
absorption of energy.
Fusion Applications - IFE
In an IFE (Inertial Fusion Energy) power plant, many (typically
5-10) pulses of fusion energy per second would heat a low-
activation coolant, such as lithium-bearing liquid metals or molten
salts, surrounding the fusion targets. The coolant in turn would
transfer the fusion heat to a power conversion system to produce
electricity.
Significant Nuclear Reactions -
Fission
Nuclear fission differs from other forms of radioactive decay in that it can be
harnessed and controlled via a chain reaction: free neutrons released by
each fission event can trigger yet more events, which in turn release more
neutrons and cause more fissions. The most common nuclear fuels are 235U
(the isotope of uranium with an atomic mass of 235 and of use in nuclear
reactors) and 239Pu (the isotope of plutonium with an atomic mass of 239).
These fuels break apart into a bimodal range of chemical elements with
atomic masses centering near 95 and 135 u (fission products).
Fission Bomb
One class of nuclear weapon, a fission
bomb (not to be confused with the
fusion bomb), otherwise known as
an atomic bomb or atom bomb, is a
fission reactor designed to liberate
as much energy as possible as
rapidly as possible, before the
released energy causes the reactor
to explode (and the chain reaction to
stop).
A nuclear reactor is a device in
which nuclear chain fission reactions
are initiated, controlled, and
sustained at a steady rate, as
opposed to a nuclear bomb, in which
the chain reaction occurs in a fraction
of a second and is uncontrolled
causing an explosion.
Charged Particles Interaction
with Matter
heavy
light
Macroscopic Microscopic

Transmission
Charged Particles
Beta particles Alpha particles

Mean Range of b-particles
Radionuclide Max energy Range (cm) in

(keV) air water aluminium
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
H-3 18.6 4.6 0.0005 0.00022
C-14 156 22.4 0.029 0.011
P-32 1700 610 0.79 0.29
Bremsstrahlung
Photon
Electron

Bremsstrahlung Production
 The higher the atomic number of the X-
ray target, the higher the yield
 The higher the incident electron energy,
the higher the probability of X-ray
production
 At any electron energy, the probability of
generating X-rays decreases with
increasing X-ray energy

X-ray Production
 High energy electrons hit a (metallic)
target where part of their energy is
converted into radiation
electrons
Low to High
medium > 1MeV
energy target energy
(10-400keV)
X-rays

X-Ray Tube for low and
medium X-ray production

Megavoltage X-ray Linac
electrons
target
X-rays

Issues with X-ray Production
 Angular distribution: high energy X-rays are
mainly forward directed, while low energy X-
rays are primarily emitted perpendicular to
the incident electron beam
 Efficiency of production: In general, the
higher the energy, the more efficient is X-ray
production - this means that at low energies
most of the energy of the electron (>98%) is
converted into heat - target cooling is
essential
The Resulting X-Ray Spectrum
Characteristic
X-rays
Bremsstrahlung
Spectrum after
filtration
Maximum electron energy

Photons Interaction with Matter
absorption
scattering
transmission
energy deposition

Photoelectric Effect
photon
electron
characteristic
radiation
Compton Process
scattered
photon
photon
electron

Pair Production
positron
photon
electron

Annihilation
(511 keV) (511 keV)

+ + e -
+ (1-3 mm)
Radionuclide

Photon Interaction
Atomic number (Z)
Photon energy (MeV)

Transmission-Photons
d: absorber thickness
m: attenuation coefficient
HVL: half value layer TVL: tenth value layer

HVL

Parent-Daughter Decay
A B C
λ1 λ2

Parent-Daughter Decay
Secular equilibrium Transient equilibrium

TB<<TA ≈ ∞ TA ≈ 10 TB
No equilibrium
TA ≈ 1/10 TB

99
Mo-99mTc
87.6% 99m
Tc
99
Mo
 140 keV
12.4% T½ = 6.02 h
ß- 442 keV 99
Tc
 739 keV
T½ = 2.75 d ß- 292 keV
T½ = 2*105 y
99
Ru stable

What is a “Dose” of Radiation?
• When radiation’s energy is deposited into our body’s
tissues, that is a dose of radiation.
• The more energy deposited into the body, the higher the
dose.
• Rem is a unit of measure for radiation dose.
• Small doses expressed in mrem = 1/1000 rem.
• Rad & R (Roentgens) are similar units that are often
equated to the Rem.
104
From Understanding Radiation, Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL
Typical Doses
Average Dose to US Public from All sources 360 mrem/year
Average Dose to US Public From Natural Sources 300 mrem/year
Average Dose to US Public From Medical Uses 53 mrem/year
Coal Burning Power Plant 0.2 mrem/year
Average dose to US Public from Weapons Fallout < 1 mrem/year
Average Dose to US Public From Nuclear Power < 0.1 mrem/year
Occupational Dose Limit for Radiation Workers 5,000 mrem/yr
Coast to coast Airplane roundtrip 5 mrem

Chest X ray 8 mrem
Dental X ray 10 mrem
Head/neck X ray 20 mrem
Shoe Fitting Fluoroscope (not in use now) 170 mrem
CT (head and body) 1,100 mrem
Therapeutic thyroid treatment (dose to the whole
105
body) 7,000
From Understanding Radiation, Brooke mrem
Buddemeier, LLNL
Types of Exposure & Health Effects
• Acute Dose
– Large radiation dose in a short period of time
– Large doses may result in observable health effects
• Early: Nausea & vomiting
• Hair loss, fatigue, & medical complications
• Burns and wounds heal slowly
– Examples: medical exposures and
accidental exposure to sealed sources
• Chronic Dose
– Radiation dose received over a long period of time
– Body more easily repairs damage from chronic doses
– Does not usually result in observable effects
– Examples: Background Radiation and
Internal Deposition
Inhalation
106
From Understanding Radiation, Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL
Dividing Cells are the Most Radiosensitive
• Rapidly dividing cells are more susceptible to

radiation damage.
• Examples of radiosensitive cells are
– Blood forming cells
– The intestinal lining
– Hair follicles
– A fetus
This is why the fetus has a exposure limit (over gestation period)
of 500 mrem (or 1/10th of the annual adult limit)
107
From Understanding Radiation,Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL
At HIGH Doses, We KNOW
Radiation Causes Harm
• High Dose effects seen in:
– Radium dial painters
– Early radiologists
– Atomic bomb survivors
– Populations near Chernobyl
– Medical treatments
– Criticality Accidents
• In addition to radiation sickness, increased cancer rates
were also evident from high level exposures.
108
Effects of ACUTE Exposures
Dose (Rads*) Effects
First sign of physical effects
25-50
(drop in white blood cell count)
Threshold for vomiting

100
(within a few hours of exposure)
~ 50% die within 60 days
320 - 360 (with minimal supportive care)
~50 % die within 60 days

480 - 540 (with supportive medical care)
1,000 ~ 100% die within 30 days
* For common external exposures 1 Rad ~ 1Rem = 1,000 mrem

109
At LOW Doses, We PRESUME
Radiation Causes Harm
• No physical effects have been observed
• Although somewhat controversial, this
increased risk of cancer is presumed to be
proportional to the dose (no matter how small).
The Bad News: Radiation is a carcinogen
and a mutagen
The Good News: Radiation is a very weak
carcinogen and mutagen!
Very Small DOSE = Very Small RISK

From Understanding Radiation
Brooke Buddemeier, LLNL
110
Energy Absorption
High absorbed energy per unit mass
Many ionizations per unit mass
Increased risk of biological damage

Absorbed Dose
Absorbed energy per mass unit
1 Gy (gray)=1 J/kg

Harold Gray 1905-1965

1 Gy is a relatively large Quantity
 Radiotherapy doses > 1Gy
 Dose from nuclear medicine
examination typically 0.05-0.001Gy
 Annual background radiation due to
natural radiation (terrestic, cosmic, due
to internal radioactivity, Radon,…) about
0.002-0.004 Gy

Fractions & Prefixes (Dose)
Fraction Prefix Abbreviation
1 - Sv
1/1000 milli (m) mSv
1/1,000,000 micro () Sv

A note of caution:
Energy deposition in
matter is a random
event and the
definition of dose
breaks down for
small volumes (e.g.
a single cell). The
discipline of Micro-
dosimetry aims to
address this issue.
Adapted from Zaider 2000

Equivalent Dose/
Effective Dose
He = wr * D
D: absorbed dose (Gy), wr : radiation weighting factor (1-20)
Heff=wT*He
He: equivalent dose (Sv), wT: tissue weighting factor (0.05-0.20)
Unit: 1 Sv (sievert)

Effective Dose
Tissue or organ Weighting factor

Gonads 0.20
Bone marrow (red) 0.12
Colon 0.12
Lung 0.12
Stomach 0.12
Bladder 0.05
Breast 0.05
Liver 0.05
Oesophagus 0.05
Thyroid 0.01
Bone surface 0.01
Remainder (adrenals, kidney, muscle, 0.05
upper large intestine, small intestine,
pancreas, spleen, thymus, uterus, brain)

Diagnostic Effective Dose (mSv)
X-ray Nuclear medicine
cardioangiography thyroid I-131

CT pelvis 10myocard Tl-201
large intestine
CT abdomen CBF Tc-99m
urography thyroid I-123
lumbar spine 1 bone Tc-99m
thyroid Tc-99m
liver Tc-99m
lung Tc-99m
chest renography I-131
0.1
extremities
blood volume
0.01 I-125
dental clearance Cr-51

Absorbed Dose
Absorbed energy per mass unit
1 Gy (gray)=1 J/kg

Harold Gray 1905-1965

1 Gy is a relatively large Quantity
 Radiotherapy doses > 1Gy
 Dose from nuclear medicine
examination typically 0.05-0.001Gy
 Annual background radiation due to
natural radiation (terrestic, cosmic, due
to internal radioactivity, Radon,…) about
0.002-0.004 Gy

Fractions & Prefixes (Dose)
Fraction Prefix Abbreviation
1 - Sv
1/1000 milli (m) mSv
1/1,000,000 micro () Sv

A note of caution:
Energy deposition in
matter is a random
event and the
definition of dose
breaks down for
small volumes (e.g.
a single cell). The
discipline of Micro-
dosimetry aims to
address this issue.
Adapted from Zaider 2000

Equivalent Dose/
Effective Dose
He = wr * D
D: absorbed dose (Gy), wr : radiation weighting factor (1-20)
Heff=wT*He
He: equivalent dose (Sv), wT: tissue weighting factor (0.05-0.20)
Unit: 1 Sv (sievert)

Effective Dose
Tissue or organ Weighting factor

Gonads 0.20
Bone marrow (red) 0.12
Colon 0.12
Lung 0.12
Stomach 0.12
Bladder 0.05
Breast 0.05
Liver 0.05
Oesophagus 0.05
Thyroid 0.01
Bone surface 0.01
Remainder (adrenals, kidney, muscle, 0.05
upper large intestine, small intestine,
pancreas, spleen, thymus, uterus, brain)

Diagnostic Effective Dose (mSv)
X-ray Nuclear medicine
cardioangiography thyroid I-131

CT pelvis 10myocard Tl-201
large intestine
CT abdomen CBF Tc-99m
urography thyroid I-123
lumbar spine 1 bone Tc-99m
thyroid Tc-99m
liver Tc-99m
lung Tc-99m
chest renography I-131
0.1
extremities
blood volume
0.01 I-125
dental clearance Cr-51

Rolf Sievert (1896-1966)

Collective Dose
The total equivalent dose or effective dose to a certain
population, such as all patients in a nuclear medicine
department, all staff in the department, the whole
population in a country etc.
The unit is 1 manSv

Collective effective doses in Sweden

What is molecular imaging?
• Molecular imaging follows the paths of certain drugs or

pharmaceuticals given to the patient with external detectors to
evaluate a variety of cellular and molecular processes within the
body. The information obtained from these studies can be very
helpful in deciding the best treatment for the patient.
• Nuclear medicine is one type of molecular imaging where radioactive

pharmaceuticals (referred to as “radiopharmaceuticals”) are used to
evaluate these processes.
What is nuclear medicine?
• Nuclear medicine imaging uses safe, painless, and cost-effective

techniques to image the body and treat disease.
– It uses very small amounts of radioactive pharmaceuticals and traces their
progress through your body.
– Nuclear medicine is unique, because it helps doctors “view” how your
body is functioning.
• This is different from x-rays or CT scans, which show how your body looks
rather than how it works.
• Nuclear medicine therapy uses larger amounts of radiation to treat

thyroid disease and cancer.
Why is it important?
• Enables early discovery of changes in tissues since changes in function

often occur before changes in anatomy.
• Enables quick, personalized management of each patient.
• Can safely view and treat disease and avoid more invasive procedures.
– Can help find and characterize diseases in practically every organ system
including the heart, brain, skeleton, thyroid and kidneys—and many types of
cancer.
– Can be used to treat disease without surgery.
• When nuclear medicine is performed with the right test using the right
dose on the right patient at the right time, it is of great clinical benefit!
Nuclear medicine therapy
• A unique way to kill cancer cells with minimal damage to

surrounding tissue.
– One radioactive pharmaceutical called iodine-131 can be very effective in
treating thyroid disease, including cancer.
– Others are used to treat cancers such as lymphoma, neuroblastoma and
metastatic prostate cancer.
Thyroid Radioimmuno-
treatment therapy (RIT)
How does it work?
Imaging Agent goes

agent to lungs
given to
patient
Image of Patient
lung scan imaged with
camera
Nuclear medicine scanners
Nuclear medicine PET/CT

gamma camera camera
Examples of scans
Whole body Myocardial perfusion Brain tumor

PET/CT scan heart SPECT scan PET scan
Emission Tomography
The form of imaging which we have been describing is called Planar Imaging. It produces a
two-dimensional image of a three-dimensional object. As a result images contain no depth
information and some details can be superimposed on top of each other and obscured or
partially obscured as a result. Note that this is also a feature of conventional X-ray imaging.
The usual way of trying to overcome this limitation is to take at least two views of the
patient, one from the front and one from the side for example. So in chest radiography a
posterio-anterior (PA) and a lateral view can be taken. And in a nuclear medicine liver scan
an antero-posterior (AP) and lateral scan are taken.
This limitation of planar X-ray imaging was overcome by the development of the CAT
Scanner about 1970 or thereabouts. CAT stands for Computerised Axial Tomography or
Computer Assisted Tomography and today the term is often shortened to Computed
Tomography or CT scanning (the term tomography comes from the Greek word tomos
meaning slice). Irrespective of its exact name the technique allows images of slices through
the body to be produced using a computer. It does this in essence by taking X-ray images at a
number of angles around the patient. These slice images show the third dimension which is
missing from planar images and thus eliminate the problem of superimposed details.
Furthermore images of a number of successive slices through a region of the patient can be
stacked on top of each other using the computer to produce a three-dimensional image.
Clearly CT scanning is a very powerful imaging technique which is far superior to planar
imaging.
The equivalent nuclear medicine imaging technique is called
Single Photon Emission Computed
Tomography (SPECT)
This SPECT technique uses a gamma camera
to record images at a series of angles around
the patient. These images are then subjected
to a form of digital image processing called
Image Reconstruction in order to compute
images of slices through the patient.

Positron Emission Tomography
(PET)
You will remember from chapter 2 that positrons can be emitted from
radioactive nuclei which have too many neutrons for stability. You will also
remember that positrons do not last for very long in matter since they will
quickly encounter an electron and a process called annihilation results. In the
process the positron and electron vanish and their energy is converted into two
gamma-rays which are emitted at 180odegrees to each other. The emission is
often referred to as two back-to-back gamma-rays and they each have a
discrete energy of 0.51 MeV.
So if we administer a positron-emitting radiopharmaceutical to a patient an
emitted positrons can annihilate with a nearby electon and two gamma-rays
will be emitted in opposite directions. These gamma-rays can be detected using
a ring of radiation detectors encircling the patient and tomographic images can
be generated using a computer system. The detectors are typically specialised
scintillation devices which are optimised for detection of the 0.51 MeV
gamma-rays. This ring of detectors, associated apparatus and computer system
are called a PET Scanner:

Radiation Detectors
Range of Radiation
Alpha: Small. Shield with a piece of paper
Beta: Smallish Shield with a ½ inch or so of Pb
Gamma: Long Shield with a few inches of Pb
Neutron: Very long Shield with many inches of parafin
To detect the radiation it has to

a) Get to and b) Get into your detector
151
Radiation Detectors
Almost all work on the same general idea
When an energetic charged particle passes through matter it will
rapidly slow down and lose its energy by interacting with the
atoms of the material (detector or body)
• Mostly with the atomic electrons
It will ‘kick’ these electrons off of the atoms leaving a trail of
ionized atoms behind it (like a vapor trail of a jet plane)
Radiation detectors use a high voltage and some electronics to
measure these vapor trails. They measure a (small) electric
current).
152
Radiation Detectors
Like a bullet going through something
A friction force will slow it down and stop it
Friction
More Charge  More friction
More Massive  More friction
More friction  Shorter Range
153
Radiation Detectors
It has to get into your detector
e.g. Alpha …. A few inches of air or a piece of paper stops

it … if your detector is a few feet away, it will not detect
the alpha …
e.g. Alpha … if the sides of the detector are too thick the
alpha will not get in and will not be detected
154
Radiation Detectors
Neutrons and gamma-rays are neutral
No charge … much less friction … much longer range
When they penetrate matter eventually they also will interact

somehow (gamma-rays interact via Compton scattering,
photoelectic effect or pair production, neutrons will collide with
protons in the nuclei) and these interactions produce energetic
charged particles.
The detectors are sensitive to these secondary particles.
155
Types of detector
Alpha, Beta and Gamma radiation
Film Badges
Gas Counters (Geiger counters)
Scintillators
Solid State Detectors
156
Film Badges
Will detect: beta, gamma and neutron
Need to send away and develop the film and then later will tell
you what does you received
Used by radiation workers
TLC devices … similar idea but with real-time readout
157
Gas Counters
e.g. Geiger Counters
Will Detect: Alpha, Beta, some gamma
No identification … just tells you something is there
With a thin entrance window GM-tube is sensitive to alphas
158
Scintillators
Make a flash of light when something interacts

Sodium Iodide
Cesium Iodide
Will Detect: Alpha (with thin window), beta (with thin window)
and gamma.
Gives moderate to bad energy information … some information

on the type of radiation
159
Semiconductor Detectors
Germanium
Silicon
Will Detect: Gamma rays (also beta and alphas in a

laboratory, not in the field)
Excellent energy resolution: Can measure exactly was source

you are looking at.
160
Spare Transparencies
161
When a physical process can
Radioactive Decay happen … it will happen.
When it is forbidden to happen
… it just takes a little longer!
If a nucleus can decay

… it will
When can a nucleus decay? …
• When there is a lighter nucleus for it to decay into
• When this decay is allowed by certain conservation laws ….
• Conservation of energy
• Conservation of charge
• Certain other ‘quantum numbers’
162
Beta Decay n  p + e- + 
Various laws must be obeyed, including
1. Conservation of Energy
• E = mc2 … a heavy particle can decay into
lighter one(s).
• The excess energy is turned into kinetic
energy of the light particles
2. Conservation of Charge
• An electron is produced
3. Conservation of Lepton Number
• a very nebulous particle called a neutrino is
also produced
163
• The image of the distribution of the gamma-ray-
emitting radiopharmaceutical is produced in the
scintillation crystal by a collimator.
• The gamma rays, which are not visible to
the eye, are converted into flashes of light by the
scintillation crystal. This light is, in turn, transformed
into electronic signals by an array of photomultiplier
tubes (PMT) viewing the rear face of the crystal.
• After processing, the outputs from
the PMTs are converted into three signals, two of
which (X and Y) give the spatial location of the
scintillation while the third (Z) represents the energy
deposited in the crystal by the gamma ray.
To improve their quality these signals then pass
through correction circuits..
The Z signal goes to a pulse height analyzer
(PHA), which tests whether the energy of the
gamma ray is within the range of values expected
for the particular radionuclide being imaged. If
the Z signal has an acceptable value, then a
signal is sent instructing the display To record
that there has been a gamma ray detected, the
position being determined by the X and Y
signals. The individual elements of the system
will now be considered in more detail.

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Radiation and Nuclear Basics

• Point-like particles (i.e.nothing inside an electron)

• Very light ~ 1/2000th of proton mass

• Negatively charged (-1 elementary charge)

• Have almost none of the mass of the atom

• All of chemistry has to do with electrons from different atoms

• Almost all of the mass of the atom is

• >99.9% of the known mass in the universe.

• Occupies almost none of the volume of the

Neutrons are slightly more massive than

Many laws allow neutrons to `change into’

The half life of a free proton is > 1031 years

If an electron is EXCITED, that means

If an electron is DE-EXCITED, that

We call these leaps from energy level

Since a PHOTON is emitted that

Note: It is very important to understanding that these transitions DO NOT

Notice that they give us the

When an electron gets excited inside

Bottom number = atomic number = # of

The nucleus of the atom is held together by a STRONG NUCLEAR

The extra mass turns into energy

Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 25

Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 26

Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 33

Uranium billions Natural uranium is comprised of several different isotopes.

Irridium-192 74 d Implants or "seeds" for treatment of cancer. Also used for

Technicium-99m 6 h Brain, heart, liver (gastoenterology), lungs, bones, thyroid,

The number of decaying nuclei per unit of time

1 Bq (becquerel)=1 per second

Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 40

 3000 Bq in the body from natural

Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 41

Nuclear Medicine Part 2: Radiation Physics 42

Many elements have several stable nuclei with the

• Specific activity is the amount of

• Radioactive material with long half-

In the First Second

1 year = 365 days * 24 hours * 60 minutes * 60 seconds = 31,536,000 seconds

In the First Second for substance B

Each of the particles emitted in the decay carries a lot of

Americium-241, an alpha-emitter, is used in smoke detectors. The alpha particles

Very easy to shield

External Hazard: Low

• Parent nucleus 23894Pu144

• The neutron and the proton are very similar to

As in the case of alpha decay the daughter nuclei are

• Therefore, the range of a beta-particle is greater and63

• Therefore, the range of a beta-particle is greater

• Gamma-rays are a very energetic form of light.

• Gamma-ray energies are characteristic of the nucleus.

into two lighter fission

Plus some left over bits Sometimes this

Remember … in the fission process extra neutrons

Controlled … nuclear power plant … exactly one

Uncontrolled … nuclear bomb … more than one

nuclear fusion is the process by which multiple like-charged atomic nuclei