SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

COSC 314 (3 CREDITS)

* General systems concepts.
• General Introduction to systems
• Information system components.
• Types of information system.
• Systems development life cycle (SDLC): examples linear/waterfall, prototyping, spiral etc.
• Preliminary Investigation: feasibility activities.
• System analysis: determining requirements- facts finding techniques e.g interviews,
questionnaire, observation etc.
• Analyzing requirements- structured analysis.
• DFD, process description tools e. g decision tables/tree, structured/tight English etc.
• Introduction to object-oriented system analysis: Overview of object modeling, UML.
• System Design: general guidelines, output design e.g printed reports, screen output, tapes etc.
• Input design e.g data entry screen design, help screen design.
• Real life case studies to provide experience in applying the principles and techniques presented.
• Prerequisite: COSC 202,INSY 241.
• Essentials of System Analysis and Design 5th ed. – J. Valacich, et. Al.,(Pearson, 2012)
General Introduction to systems

Introduction to System Analysis and Design

Systems are created to solve problems.
One can think of the systems approach as an
organized way of dealing with a problem.
In this dynamic world, The subject System
Analysis and Design, mainly deals with the
software development activities
 OBJECTIVES
• After going through this lesson, you should be
able to:
• understand a system
• understand the different phases of system
developments life cycle
• know the components of system analysis
• know the components of system designing
 Defining A System
A collection of components that work together
to realize some objective forms a system.
Basically there are three major components in
every system, namely input, processing and
output
 General System Interconnection and
Objectivity
In a system, the different components are connected
with each other and they are interdependent. For
example, Human body represents a complete natural
system.
We are also bound by many national systems such as
political system, economic system, educational system
and so forth.
The objective of the system demand that some
output is produced as a result of processing the
suitable inputs.
 Definition of System
There are many common types of systems that we come into
contact with every day. It is important to be familiar with
different kinds of systems for at least two reasons:
First of all, even though your work as a systems analyst will
probably focus on one kind of system – an automated,
computerized information system – it will generally be a part of
a larger system.
For example, you may be working on a payroll system, which is
part of a larger “human resources” system, which is, in turn, part
of an overall business organization (which is itself, a system),
which is, in turn, part of a larger economic system, and so on.
Thus, to make your system successful, you must understand
the other systems with which it will interact.
Many of the computer systems that we build are
replacements, or new implementations of, non-computerized
systems that are already in existence.
Also, most computer systems interact with, or interface with,
a variety of existing systems (some of which may be
computerized and some which may not).
If our new computer system is to be successful, we must
understand, in reasonable detail, how the current system
behaves.
Second, even though many types of systems appear to be
quite different, they turn out to have many similarities.
There are common principles and philosophies and theories
that apply remarkably well to virtually all kinds of systems.
Thus, we can often apply to systems that we build in the
computer field, what we have learned about other systems,
based on our own day-to-day experience, as well as the
experience of scientists and engineers in a variety of fields.
Thus, if we understand something of general systems theory,
it can help us better understand computerized (automated)
information systems.
Today, this is more and more important, because we want to build stable,
reliable systems that will function well in our complex society, and of course,
there are many examples of non-computer systems that have survived for
thousands of years.
And now, we can consider a definition of the basic term "system". It provides
several definitions:
1. A regularly interacting or interdependent group of items forming a unified
whole.
2. An organized set of doctrines, ideas, or principles, usually intended to explain
the arrangements or working of a systematic whole.
3. An organized or established procedure.
4. Harmonious arrangement or pattern: order.
5. An organized society or social situation regarded as stultifying establishment.
 COMMON TYPE OF SYSTEMS
There are many different types of systems, but
indeed, virtually everything that we come into
contact with during our day-to-day life is either
a system or a component of a system (both).
It is useful to organize the many different kinds of
systems into useful categories. Because our
ultimate focus is on computer systems, we will
divide all systems into two categories: natural
systems and man-made systems.
 NATURAL SYSTEMS
There are a lot of systems that are not made by people:
they exist in nature and, by and large, serve their own
purpose.
It is convenient to divide natural systems into two basic
subcategories: physical systems and living systems.

Physical Systems include such diverse example as:

• Stellar systems: galaxies, solar systems, and so on.
• Geological systems: rivers, mountain ranges, and so on.
• Molecular systems: complex organizations of atoms.
 Living systems
Physical systems are interesting to study because we sometimes
want to modify them.
We also develop a variety of man-made systems, including
computer systems, which must interact harmoniously with
physical systems; so it is often important to be able to model those
systems to ensure that we understand them as fully as possible.
Living systems encompass all of the myriad animals and plants
around us, as well as our own human race.
The properties and characteristics of familiar living systems can be
used to help illustrate and better understand man-made systems.
 19 properties and characteristics of familiar LIVING
SYSTEMS can be used to help illustrate and better
understand MAN-MADE SYSTEMS
1. The reproducer, which is capable of giving rise to other systems similar to the one it
is in.
2. The boundary, which holds together the components that make up the system,
protects them from environmental stresses, and excludes or permits entry to various
sorts of matter-energy and information.
3. The ingestor, which brings matter-energy across the system boundary from its
environment.
4. The distributor, which carries inputs from outside the system or outputs from its
subsystems around the system to each component.
5. The converter, which changes certain inputs to the system into forms more useful for
the special processes of that particular system.
6. The producer, which forms stable associations that endure for significant periods
among matter-energy inputs to the system or outputs from its converter, the
materials synthesized being or growth, damage repair, or replacement of components
of the system, or for providing energy for moving or constituting the system’s outputs
of products or information markets to its suprasystem.
7. The matter-energy storage subsystem, which retains in the system, for different
periods of time, deposits of various sorts of matter-energy.
8. The extruder, which transmits matter-energy out of the system in the form of
products or wastes.
9. The motor, which moves the system or parts of it in relation to part or all of its
environment or moves components of its environment in relation to each other.
10. The supporter, which maintains the proper spatial relationships among
components of the systems, so that they can interact without weighing each other
down or crowding each other.
11. The input transducer, which brings markers bearing information into system,
changing them to other matter-energy forms suitable for transmission within it.
12. The internal transducer, which receives, from other subsystems or components
within the system, markers bearing information about significant alterations in those
subsystems or components, changing them to other matter-energy form of a sort
that can be transmitted within it.
13. The channel and net, which are composed of a single route in physical space, or
multiple interconnected routes, by which markers bearing information are
transmitted to all parts of the system
14. The decoder, who alters the code of information input to it through the input
transducer or internal transducer into a private code that can be used internally by
the system.
15. The associator, which carries out the first stage of the learning process, forming
enduring associations among items of information in the system.
16. The memory, which carries out the second stage of the learning process, storing
various sorts of information in the system for different periods of time.
17. The decider, which receives information inputs from all other subsystems and
transmits to them information outputs that control the entire system.
18. The encoder, who alters the code of information input to it from other information
processing subsystems, from a private code used internally by the system into a public
code that can be interpreted by other systems in its environment.
19. The output transducer, which puts out markers bearing information from the
system, changing markers within the system into other matter-energy forms that can
be transmitted over channels in the system’s environment.
Keep in mind that many man-made systems (and automated systems) interact with
living systems. In some cases, automated systems are being designed to replace living
systems. And in other cases, researchers are considering living systems as
components of automated systems
 MAN-MADE SYSTEMS
Man-made systems include such things as:
1. Social systems: organizations of laws, doctrines, customs, and so
on.
2. An organized, disciplined collection of ideas.
3. Transportation systems: networks of highways, canals, airlines and
so on.
4. Communication systems: telephone, telex, and so on.
5. Manufacturing systems: factories, assembly lines, and so on.
6. Financial systems: accounting, inventory, general ledger and so on.
Most of these systems include computers today. As a systems
analyst, you will naturally assume that every system that you come
in contact with should be computerized. And the customer or user,
with whom you interact will generally assume that you have such a
bias.
A systems analyst will analyze, or study, the system to
determine its essence: and understand the system's
required behavior, independent of the technology used
to implement the system.
In most case, we will be in a position to determine
whether it makes sense to use a computer to carry out
the functions of the system only after modeling its
essential behaviour.
Some information processing systems may not be
automated because of these common reasons: Cost;
Convenience; Security; Maintainability; Politics.
 Automated Systems
Automated systems are the man-made systems that interact with or are
controlled by one or more computers. We can distinguish many different kinds
of automated systems, but they all tend to have common components:
1. Computer hardware (CPUs, disks, terminals, and so on).
2. Computer software: system programs such as operating systems, database
systems, and so on.
3. Peopleware/Warmware: those who operate the system, those who provide its
inputs and consume its outputs, and those who provide manual processing
activities in a system.
4. Data: the information that the system remembers over a period of time.
5. Procedures: formal policies and instructions for operating the system.
One way of categorizing automated systems is by application. However, this turns
out not to be terribly useful, for the techniques that we will discuss for
analyzing, modeling, designing, and implementing automated systems are
generally the same regardless of the application.
 A more useful categorization of automated
systems
1. Batch system: A batch system is one which in it, the information is
usually retrieved on a sequential basis, which means that the
computer system read through all the records in its database,
processing and updating those records for which there is some
activity.
2. A real-time system may be defined as one which controls an
environment by receiving data, processing them, and returning
the results sufficiently quickly to affect the environment at that
time.
• Immediacy of data processing:
The time in which a computer system processes and updates data as
soon as it is received from some external source such as an air-
traffic control or antilock brake system.
The time available to receive the data, process it, and respond
to the external process is dictated by the time constraints
imposed by the process.
A real time system must satisfy the requirements of producing
the desired results immediately or at a particular time.
They process data so quickly that the results of the processes
are available to influence activities that are currently taking
place.
Examples include, air – line ticket reservation systems, low
level entry billing systems, and so on.
3.On-line systems: An on-line system is one which
accepts input directly from the area where it is created.
It is also a system in which the outputs, or results of
computation, are returned directly to where they are
required.
4.Decision-support systems: These computer systems do
not make decisions on their own, but instead help
managers and other professional “knowledge workers”
in an organization make intelligent, informed decisions
about various aspects of the operation
Typically, the decision-support systems are passive in the
sense that they do not operate on a regular basis: instead,
they are used on an ad hoc basis, whenever needed.
5. Knowledge-based systems: The goal of computer
scientists working in the field of artificial intelligence is to
produce programs that imitate human performance in a
wide variety of “intelligent” tasks. For some expert systems,
that goal is close to being attained. For others, although we
do not yet know how to construct programs that perform
well on their own, we can begin to build programs that
significantly assist people in their performance of a task.
 General Systems Principles
There are a few general principles that are of particular interest to people building
automated information systems. They include the following:
1. The more specialized a system is, the less able it is to adapt to different circumstances.
2. The more general-purpose a system is, the less optimized it is for any particular
situation. But the more the system is optimized for a particular situation, the less
adaptable it will be to new circumstances.
3. The larger a system is, the more of its resources that must be devoted to its everyday
maintenance.
4. Systems are always part of larger systems, and they can always be partitioned into
smaller systems.
5. Systems grow. This principle could not be true for all systems, but many of the systems
with which we are familiar do grow, because we often fail to take it into account when
we begin developing the system.
 Computing in the Early Days
Some people have phobia for computers. But computers are merely machines,
made by people, meant to be used by people and capable of being understood
by people
 Some say that a computer is a “Thinking Machine”. The “Thinking Machine”
could be a devious machine; hatching plots against you as you sit on your desk,
thinking of evil deeds that will cause you endless frustration. But a computer
neither has emotions nor motivations. It is simply an Electronic Device.
 In the earlier days of computing, when very few people had access to the
computer, those who use computers were thought to be wizards, being able to
communicate with them.
It is true that proficient use of earlier computers involves the memorizing of
long sentences of computer codes, but all modern computers, especially the
personal computers, are designed to make working with them hassle free.
Computers are now made to be ‘friendly’ with anyone attempting to use them
 Basic Components of a Computer System

Other definition:-

• A machine that can be programmed to accept data

(input), process it into useful information (output),
and store it away (in secondary storage device) for
safekeeping or later reuse

• Process is directed by software but performed by the

hardware
 Cornerstones of our Economy

Forging a Computer-Based Society:

• Land
• Labor
• Capital
• Information
 Jobs

Forging a Computer-Based Society:

• From physical to
mental
• From muscle-
power to brain-
power
COMPONENTS OF INFORMATION
TECHNOLOGY

•Hardware
•Software
•Warmware/People
•Procedures
•Data
 What is a Computer?
• A general-purpose machine that
processes data according to a set of
instructions that are stored internally
either temporarily or permanently.
• The computer and all equipment attached
to it are called hardware.
• The instructions that tell it what to do are
called software.
 WHAT IS COMPUTER?
A Computer is:
1. An Electronic device that can
2. Accept data (as input)
3. Process it
4. Gives the result (as output)
5. Stores processed data (as information)
for future or further use.

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 Computer Systems are the same
• Data is INPUT
• Data is PROCESSED
• Something is OUTPUT

• GIGO (Garbage in…Garbage out..)

 Generations of Computers
• The technological advancements in the development
of computers are classified into distinct groups often
referred to as the Computer Generations
1. The first generation is characterized by vacuum
tubes or the thermionic valves. These tubes made
the computer to be unnecessarily big, dissipates a
lot of energy and very slow. Examples are ENIAC
(which used 18,000 vacuum tubes), EDVAC and
UNIVAC.
 ....
2. The development of electronic transistors gave birth
to the second generation of computers, as tubes
were replaced by transistors in the construction of
the computer. Hence, these computers were smaller
in size, generated much less heat, faster, cost less and
more reliable. Examples are Honeywell 800, IBM, etc.

3. The introduction of integrated circuits (IC) into the

manufacturing of computers led to the third
generation of computers.
 ....
An integrated circuit (IC) consists of many circuit
elements such as transistors and resistors fabricated on
a single piece of silicon or other semiconducting
material or an integrated circuit (IC) contains
thousands of switches arranged on circuit boards small
enough to be hidden by your fingertip. These became
known as Chips.
Hence with this advance in technology, computers of
this generation are lighter in weight, faster, more
reliable and of course cost less, e.g. IBM/360; which
was introduced in 1964.
 ....

The tiny microprocessor shown here is the heart of the

personal computer (PC). Such devices may contain several
million transistors and be able to execute over 100 million
instructions per second. The rows of leglike metal pins are
used to connect the microprocessor to a circuit board
 ....
4. Further improvement on the degree of integration led to
the fourth generation. This generation is characterized
by the use of Large Scale Integration (LSI), meaning
many components in a very small space. This further led
to the reduction of physical size/components of the
computer e.g. pocket calculators, digital watches, and
some personal computers.
5. The advanced industrial robots are classified in the fifth
generation. This generation is concentrating on the way
computers are used, not on the electronic refinement
that characterized the previous four.
 Generations of Computers
Rather than processors of data, computer programs called Expert Systems
are widely used. Neural Networks
Research in Artificial Intelligence – Artificial Intelligent computers will
require memory capacities more than that which can accommodate up to
400 million characters, a memory space enough to store the name and
address of over 4 million people.
Artificial Intelligence computers tap into data storage devices thousands of
times larger than those available to any microcomputer, and they are
called Monster Computers. Currently, researchers have perfected
microcomputer storage devices that can store up to three billion characters
– enough room to store the names and addresses of 30 million people
 INPUT DEVICES
• Input devices are the components of computer which are used
to input or give data and instruction to the computer by the
user. The input unit is responsible for taking input and
converting it into computer understandable language(binary
code)
Data Vs Instruction
2+2=4
DATA Instruction Information

For example
Keyboard, Mouse, Mic, Scanner, Camera, etc.
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 Types of Input Devices
• Key Board
Keyboard is the type of input device which is used to
give data and instruction with the help of some sort of
keys (AlphaNumeric, Numeric keypad, Special, and
Function keys.) to the computer by the user.
Types of key board
• Devoke (Enhanced)
• QWERTY (Standard)

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 Types of Input Devices
• Pointing Devices
Pointing Devices are those device which are used to give
data, instruction and point out some specific of a specific
graph.
Types of Pointing Devices
• Mouse (Mechanical, Optical)
• Pointing Pen
• Touch Pad
• Pointing Stick
• Joy Stick
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 Types of Input Devices
• Optical Devices
Optical devices are used to give data in the shape of
image.
Types of Optical Devices
• Digital Camera
• Scanner
• MICR
• OCR

41
 Types of Input Devices
• Sound Devices
Sound Devices are used to give data to the computer in
the shape of vice.
Types of Sound Devices
• Microphone
• Mic

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All Examples of?

INPUT DEVICES
PROCESSING DEVICE: The Central Processing
Unit (CPU)
Processing devices are also the components of computer which
are used to process the data and convert into information. The
CPU is the control centre of the computer, as it guides, directs
and governs its performance. It is the brain of the computer.
The CPU has four components which are responsible for
different functions. They are:
• Control unit (CU)
• Arithmetic Logical Unit (ALU)
• Registers
• BUSES
 CPU: CONTROL UNIT (CU)
• It is responsible for directing and coordinating most
of the computer system activities.
• It does not execute instructions by itself.
• It tells other parts of the computer system what to
do.
• It determines the movement of electronic signals
between the main memory and arithmetic logic unit
as well as the control signals between the CPU and
input/output devices.
 CPU: Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
• ALU performs all the arithmetic and logical functions
i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication, division and
certain comparisons.
• These comparisons include greater than, less than,
equals to etc.
• The ALU controls the speed of calculations.
 CPU: Registers
It is a special temporary storage location within the CPU.
Registers quickly, accept, store and transfer data and instructions that are
being used immediately (main memory hold data that will be used shortly,
secondary storage holds data that will be used later).
To execute an instruction, the control unit of the CPU retrieves it from main
memory and places it onto a register.
The typical operations that take place in the processing of instruction are
part of the instruction cycle or execution cycle.
The instruction cycle refers to the retrieval of the instruction from main
memory and its subsequence at decoding.
The process alerts the circuits in CPU to perform the specified operation.
 CPU: BUSES
The term Bus refers to an electrical pathway through
which bits are transmitted between the various
computer components.
Depending on the design of the system, several types of
buses may be present.
Types of Computer BUS
1. Data Bus
The electrical path through which data is transferred
between/among components of the computer
 CPU: BUSES

2. Address Bus
Each component is assigned a unique ID, this ID is called
the address of that component. components
communicate and locate other component with this
bus.
3. Control Bus
Control bus is used to transmit different commands
from one component to another component, i.e. CPU
wants to read data from main memory, it use control
bus for giving commands.
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 CPU: BUSES

4. Expansion Bus
The expansion bus allows the processor to
communicate with the peripheral devices attached to
the card.
Types of Expansion Bus
ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) Bus
Local/PCI (Peripheral Component Interface) Bus
AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) Bus

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 Processor
• Brain of the computer
• Processes instructions
THREE STEPS
1) Fetches Instructions
2) Decodes Instruction
3) Executes Instruction
• Either chips or integrated circuits
• Integrated circuits are also found in almost every modern
electrical device such as cars, television sets, CD players,
cellular phones, etc.
 What is a Processor?
• Most computers use integrated chips….or integrated
circuits for their processors or main memory
• A chip is about 1cm square…and can hold MILLIONS
of electronic components such as transistors and
resistors
• CPU of a microcomputer is a microprocessor
• Processor and MAIN MEMORY of a PC are held on a
single board called a motherboard.
 MEMORY
Memory means the ability of computer to store the data
on temporary or permanent basis.
Types of Memory
1. Primary Memory
It is the type of computer memory which has capability
to store data temporarily. It is also called volatile
memory.
2. Secondary Memory
It is the type of computer memory which has capability
to store data on permanent basis. It is also called non-
volatile memory.
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 Primary Vs Secondary Memory
RAM
• Primary Memory
INPUT MAIN MEMORY OUT PUT

CPU
ALU CU

RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY

54
 MAIN MEMORY
The main memory of the computer is also known as the primary memory.
It is like a predefined working place, where it temporarily keeps
information and data to facilitate its performance. When the task is
performed, it clears its memory and memory space and is then available
for the next task to be performed.
When the power is switched off, everything stored in the memory gets
erased and cannot be recalled. There are two types of primary (main)
memory which are as follows:
1.Random Access Memory (RAM)
2.Read Only Memory (ROM)
PRIMARY MEMORY: RAM and ROM
There are two kinds of Memory
1. RAM –Random Access Memory (MM) – This is used
for storing programs that are currently running and
data that is being processed.
2. ROM –Read Only Memory – Its contents are
PERMANENTLY etched into the memory chip at the
manufacturing stage. It is used – for example – to
load the bootstrap loader (the program that loads as
soon as you start the machine)
 RAM – Random Access memory
• Stores info about applications that are open and data
• VOLATILE – When you switch off the machine, it disappears!!!
TYPES OF RAM
• S-RAM (Static Random Access Memory)
1. Low cost
2. Low Speed
Refresh again and again
• D-RAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory)
1. Costly
2. High Speed
3. Automatic Refresh System
 TYPES OF RAM
• DRAM - Dynamic Random Access Memory
• SRAM - Static Random Access Memory
• SDRAM - Synchronous dynamic RAM
• DDRAM - Double Data RAM
• SIMM - Single In-line Memory Module
• DIMM - Dual In-line Memory Module
• EDO-DRAM - Extended Data Out Dynamic RAM
• DDR SDRAM - Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic RAM
• FPM DRAM - Fast Page Mode Dynamic RAM
• RD-RAM – Rambus Dynamic RAM
• D-RDRAM - Direct Rambus Dynamic Random Access Memory
• MDRAM – Multibank Dynamic Random Access Memory
• BEDO-DRAM – Burst Extended Data Out Dynamic RAM
• DDR-DRAM – Double Data Rate Direct RAM 58
 ROM – Read Only Memory
• Non-Volatile (does not change)
• Programs that are necessary for the computer to run like
the Boot up program (BIOS)
KINDS OF ROM
• PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) only one time
• EPROM (ELECTRONICALLY (erasable) Programmable Read
Only Memory) Two or three time
• EEPROM (Electronic Erasable Programmable Read Only
Memory)
Flash Memory again and again
 MAIN MEMORY
• The program currently being executed and the data
used by the program is held in MAIN MEMORY
• MM is divided into millions of individually addressable
storage units called BYTES
• One byte can hold one character
• Or one byte can hold a code representing something –
i.e a part of a picture, or a sound, or a program
instruction.
• The total number of bytes in MM = The computers
MEMORY SIZE.
 STORAGE DEVICES
Storage Devices are used to store data on permanent or
temporary basis.
Types of Storage Devices
Magnetic Devices
1. Magnetic Tape
2. Hard Disk
3. Floppy Disk
Optical Devices
4. CD-ROM, CD-RW
5. DVD-ROM, DVD-RW
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 Disk Storage
• Auxiliary storage is also called
• SECONDARY MEMORY
• BACKING STORE
• EXTERNAL MEMORY

• The most common secondary memory (auxiliary

storage) is DISK!
• Other types of storage include Flash Memory Cards,
Sticks, Floppy discs etc.
 Secondary Storage
• It is needed because
– Main memory stores data temporarily
– Main memory space is limited

 Benefits of secondary storage

 Space
 Reliability
 Convenience
 Economic
 Storage Devices

Many different consumer electronic devices

can store data.

Edison cylinder phonograph ca. 1899. The

Phonograph cylinder is a storage medium.
The phonograph may or may not be
considered a storage device.
 Output Devices
• Output units gives out or display information for us
to see and use.
– Display monitors: Hi-resolution monitors come in
two types:
• Cathode ray tube (CRT) - Streams of electrons make
phosphors glow on a large vacuum tube.
• Liquid crystal display (LCD) - A flat panel display that
uses crystals to let varying amounts of different colored
light to pass through it.
– Developed primarily for portable computers.
 Types of Output Devices
• Display Device
Display devices are used to get result/information from
the computer in Soft Copy.
Monitor
Monitor is an output device which gives the
result/information in text, images, video, or any
other format.

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Types of Monitor According to Technology
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube)

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Types of Monitor According to Technology
• LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
Liquid Material between two layers of Glass

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Types of Monitor According to Technology
• Gas Plasma
Neon
Oxen

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 Types of Monitor According to Size
• 14”
• 15”
• 17”
• 19”
• 21”
diagonal shape measurement

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 Types of Monitor According to Colors
• Monochromes
which contains only one color on its background
• Gray Scale Monitor
it contains only two colors one is black and the other is
White
• Color Monitor
it contains 16~16 million colors (16,777,216 possible colors)
High Resolution
Costly
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 Output Devices
• Audio Output Devices
– Windows machines need special audio card for
audio output.
– Audio output is useful for:
• Music
– CD player is a computer.
– Most personal computers have CD players that can access
both music CDs and CD-ROMs.
• Voice synthesis (becoming more human sounding.)
• Multimedia
 Printer
• Printer is the type of output device which is used to
get the result/information in the shape of hardcopy
from the computer.
Types of Printer
1. Impact Printer
It prints characters or images by striking. E.g.
Dot Matrix Printer
Line Printer
Daisy Wheel Printer
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 Printer
2. Non-Impact Printer
A non-impact printer prints characters and graphs on a piece
of paper without striking.
Types of Non-Impact Printer
1. Inkjet Printer
2. LASER (Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation)
3. Thermal Printer
4. Photo Printer
• Plotter
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 Optical Devices
Examples include:
1. Projectors (Projector:- An optical device that
projects or casts a beam of light of images
unto a screen),
2. Holograms (Holography:- A technique in
physics for recording and then reconstructing
the amplitude and phase distributions of a
coherent wave disturbance; used to produce
three-dimensional images), etc.
Computer Structure Processor Architecture /
Fabrication / Operation
• Hardware (in Computer) has to do with the equipments involved
in the proper functioning of a computer.
• Computer hardware consists of the components that can be
physically handled.
• The function of these components is typically divided into three
main categories: input, output, and storage.
• Components in these categories connect to microprocessors,
specifically, the computer’s central processing unit (CPU), the
electronic circuitry that provides the computational ability and
control of the computer, via wires or circuitry called a bus.
 Computer System
• A typical computer system consists of a central processing unit (CPU), input
devices, storage devices, and output devices.
• The CPU consists of an arithmetic/logic unit, registers, control section, and
internal bus.
• The arithmetic/logic unit carries out arithmetical and logical operations.
• The registers store data and keep track of operations.
• The control unit regulates and controls various operations.
• The internal bus connects the units of the CPU with each other and with
external components of the system.
• For most computers, the principal input devices are a keyboard and a mouse.
• Storage devices include hard disks, CD-ROM drives, and random access
memory (RAM) chips.
• Output devices that display data include monitors and printers.
 Cont. > > > >
• Software, on the other hand, is the set of instructions a computer uses to
manipulate data, such as a word-processing program or a video game.
• These programs are usually stored and transferred via the computer's
hardware to and from the CPU.
• Software also governs how the hardware is utilized; for example, how
information is retrieved from a storage device.
• The interaction between the input and output hardware is controlled by
software called the Basic Input Output System software (BIOS).
• Although microprocessors are still technically considered to be
hardware, portions of their function are also associated with computer
software.
• Since microprocessors have both hardware and software aspects they
are therefore often referred to as firmware.
 The Computer Chipset
• The various components of a computer
communicate with each other through a
chipset, which is a collection of
microprocessors connected to each other
through a series of wires (also called Buses).
• Shown here is a diagram of a typical chipset,
displaying the computer’s components and
how they are connected to each other.
`
Introduction to System Analysis and Design

The key to success in business is the ability to

gather, organize, and interpret information.
Systems analysis and design is a proven
methodology that helps both large and small
businesses reap the rewards of utilizing
information to its full capacity.
The person in the organization most involved with
systems analysis and design is the systems analyst
 SYSTEM LIFE CYCLE
System life cycle is an organisational process of developing
and maintaining systems. It helps in establishing a system
project plan, because it gives overall list of processes and
sub-processes required developing a system.
System development life cycle means combination of
various activities. In other words we can say that various
activities put together are referred as system development
life cycle.
In the System Analysis and Design terminology, the system
development life cycle means software development life
cycle
 8-phase SDLC
Following are the different phases of software development cycle:
• System study
• Feasibility study
• System analysis
• System design
• Coding
• Testing
• Implementation
• Maintenance
 
The different phases of software development life cycle is shown
in fig 1
Fig. 1 Different phases of Software development Life Cycle
 PHASES OF SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT LIFE
CYCLE
Let us now describe the different phases and the related
activities of system development life cycle in detail.
(a) System Study
System study is the first stage of system development life cycle.
This gives a clear picture of what actually the physical system is.
In practice, the system study is done in two phases.
In the first phase, the preliminary survey of the system is done
which helps in identifying the scope of the system.
The second phase of the system study is more detailed and in-
depth study in which the identification of user’s requirement and
the limitations and problems of the present system are studied.
After completing the system study, a system proposal is
prepared by the System Analyst (who studies the system) and
placed before the user. The proposed system contains the
findings of the present system and recommendations to
overcome the limitations and problems of the present system in
the light of the user’s requirements.
To describe the system study phase more analytically, we would
say that system study phase passes through the following steps:
• problem identification and project initiation
• background analysis
• inference or findings
(b) Feasibility Study
On the basis of result of the initial study, feasibility study takes
place.
The feasibility study is basically the test of the proposed
system in the light of its workability, meeting user’s
requirements, effective use of resources and .of course, the
cost effectiveness.
The main goal of feasibility study is not to solve the problem
but to achieve the scope.
In the process of feasibility study, the cost and benefits are
estimated with greater accuracy.
(c) System Analysis
Assuming that a new system is to be developed, the next phase is
system analysis. Analysis involved a detailed study of the current
system, leading to specifications of a new system. Analysis is a detailed
study of various operations performed by a system and their
relationships within and outside the system. During analysis, data are
collected on the available files, decision points and transactions handled
by the present system. Interviews, on-site observation and
questionnaire are the tools used for system analysis. Using the following
steps it becomes easy to draw the exact boundary of the new system
under consideration:
• Keeping in view the problems and new requirements
• Workout the pros and cons including new areas of the system
• All procedures, requirements that must be analysed are documented in
the form of detailed data flow diagrams (DFDs), data dictionary, logical
data structures and miniature specifications. System Analysis also
includes sub-dividing of complex process involving the entire system,
identification of data store and manual processes.
The main points to be discussed in system analysis are:
• Specification of what the new system is to accomplish based on the user
requirements.
• Functional hierarchy showing the functions to be performed by the new
system and their relationship with each other.
• Function network which is similar to function hierarchy but they highlight
the those functions which are common to more than one procedure.
• List of attributes of the entities - these are the data items which need to
be held about each entity (record)
(d) System Design
Based on the user requirements and the detailed analysis of a new
system, the new system must be designed. This is the phase
of system designing. It is a most crucial phase in the development of
a system. Normally, the design proceeds in two stages :
• preliminary or general design
• Structure or detailed design
Preliminary or general design: In the preliminary or general design,
the features of the new system are specified. The costs of
implementing these features and the benefits to be derived are
estimated. If the project is still considered to be feasible, we move to
the detailed design stage.
Structure or Detailed design: In the detailed design stage,
computer oriented work begins in earnest. At this stage,
the design of the system becomes more structured.
Structure design is a blue print of a computer system
solution to a given problem having the same components
and inter-relationship among the same components as
the original problem. Input, output and processing
specifications are drawn up in detail. In the design stage,
the programming language and the platform in which
the new system will run are also decided.
There are several tools and techniques used for designing.
These tools and techniques are:
• Flowchart
• Data flow diagram (DFDs)
• Data dictionary
• Structured English
• Decision table
• Decision tree
Each of the above tools for designing will be discussed in
detailed later
(e) Coding
After designing the new system, the whole system is required to be
converted into computer understanding language. Coding the new
system into computer programming language does this. It is an
important stage where the defined procedure are transformed
into control specifications by the help of a computer language. This
is also called the programming phase in which the programmer
converts the program specifications into computer instructions,
which we refer as programs. The programs coordinate the data
movements and control the entire process in a system.
It is generally felt that the programs must be modular in nature.
This helps in fast development, maintenance and future change, if
required.
(f) Testing
Before actually implementing the new system
into operations, a test run of the system is done
removing all the bugs, if any. It is an important
phase of a successful system. After codifying the
whole programs of the system, a test plan should
be developed and run on a given set of test data.
The output of the test run should match the
expected results.
Using the test data following test run are carried out:
• Unit test
• System test
Unit test: When the programs have been coded and compiled and brought to
working conditions, they must be individually tested with the prepared test data.
Any undesirable happening must be noted and debugged (error corrections).
System Test: After carrying out the unit test for each of the programs of the
system and when errors are removed, then system test is done. At this stage the
test is done on actual data. The complete system is executed on the actual data.
At each stage of the execution, the results or output of the system is analysed.
During the result analysis, it may be found that the outputs are not matching the
expected output of the system. In such case, the errors in the particular
programs are identified and are fixed and further tested for the expected output.
When it is ensured that the system is running error-free,
the users are called with their own actual data so that the
system could be shown running as per their requirements.
(g) Implementation
After having the user acceptance of the new system
developed, the implementation phase begins.
Implementation is the stage of a project during which
theory is turned into practice. During this phase, all the
programs of the system are loaded onto the user's
computer.
After loading the system, training of the users starts. Main topics of
such type of training are:
• How to execute the package
• How to enter the data
• How to process the data (processing details)
• How to take out the reports
After the users are trained about the computerised system, manual
working has to shift from manual to computerised working. The
following two strategies are followed for running the system:
Parallel run: In such run for a certain defined period, both the
systems i.e. computerised and manual are executed in parallel. This
strategy is helpful because of the following:
• Manual results can be compared with the results of the
computerised system.
 – Failure of the computerised system at the early stage, does
not affect the working of the organisation, because the
manual system continues to work, as it used to do.
Pilot run: In this type of run, the new system is installed
in parts. Some part of the new system is installed first
and executed successfully for considerable time period.
When the results are found satisfactory then only other
parts are implemented. This strategy builds the
confidence and the errors are traced easily.
(h) Maintenance
Maintenance is necessary to eliminate errors in the system during its
working life and to tune the system to any variations in its working
environment. It has been seen that there are always some errors
found in the system that must be noted and corrected. It also means
the review of the system from time to time. The review of the system
is done for:
• knowing the full capabilities of the system
• knowing the required changes or the additional requirements
• studying the performance
If a major change to a system is needed, a new project may have to be
set up to carry out the change. The new project will then proceed
through all the above life cycle phases.
• What You Have Learnt
• In this lesson systematic approach of any given problem is
explained. Computer based systems are defined. System
development life cycle is discussed in detail. The different phases
of the development of system life cycle are explained in detail.
•  
• Terminal Question
• Define a system. Explain the components of a system.
• What do you understand by system development life cycle?
• Discuss the importance of system analysis and design in the
development of a system?
 PRINCIPLES OF MODELING
OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS
Much scientific and engineering works include the
formulation of knowledge and the building of models.
From experiments and observations, one can form
abstract representations and laws which can then
provide a basis for analysis or engineering designs.
1. MATHEMATICAL MODELING:
Mathematical models are one particular type of
abstract representation which has been found to
provide a very effective means of encoding
information about a real system.
OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS:
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
A mathematical model which embraces the essential
features of a real world system, permits useful analysis
to be carried out for the range of conditions for which
the model is believed to be accurate and useful.
The acceptability of mathematical modeling and the
extent to which modeling techniques are used, varies
considerably from one field to another.
Often, it is when students are exposed to more
advanced experimental works in these fields that they
begin to appreciate some of the limitations of the
models which they are using.
OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS:
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
However, in the biological sciences, mathematical
modeling is still viewed with some suspicions, although
there are many examples in which models are being used
very effectively to help solve important biological problems
Objectives in the development and application of
mathematical models are very dependent upon the subject
area.
Generally, written pure science mathematical models are
developed for one or more of the following reasons:
1. Hypothesis testing,
2. The development of new or improved experiments, and
 OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS:
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
3. The provision of a concise quantitative description which
extends the capabilities of the human brain to handle
the complexities of the real system under consideration.
In this field of application, questions concerning model
accuracy and credibility are of central importance, since
decisions may be made on the basis of mathematical model
predictions which have a direct bearing on the safety,
reliability, efficiency or effectiveness of some new products
or system.
In general, whatever the field of application, mathematical
modeling should be seen as just one aspect of the system
approach to problem solving.
 PRINCIPLES OF MODELING
2. SIMULATION MODELING:
Despite the impressive advances in mathematical modeling, many
real-life situations are still well beyond the capabilities of representing
systems mathematically.
For one thing, the rigidity of mathematical representations may
make it impossible to describe the decision problem by a
mathematical model adequately.
Alternatively, even when it is plausible to formulate a proper
mathematical model, the resulting optimization problem may prove
too complex for available solution algorithms.
An alternative approach to modeling complex systems is simulation.
Simulation modeling is the next best thing to observing a real system.
It allows us to collect pertinent information about the behavior of the
system by executing a computerized model. The collected data are
then used to design the system.
OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS:
SIMULATION MODELING
Simulation is not an optimization technique; rather, it is a
technique for estimating the measure of performance of
the modeled system.
It differs from mathematical modeling in that, the
relationship between the input and output need not be
stated explicitly. Instead, it breaks down the real system
into (small) modules, and then imitates the actual
behavior of the system by using logical relationships to
link the modules together.
Starting with the input module, the simulation
computations moves among the appropriate modules
until the output result is realized.
OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS:
SIMULATION MODELING
• Simulation computations, though usually simple,
are voluminous. It is thus unthinkable to execute
a simulation model without the use of a
computer. They are much more flexible in
representing systems than their mathematical
counterparts.
The main reason for this flexibility is that simulation
modeling reviews the system at an elemental level,
whereas mathematical models tend to represent
the system from a more global standpoint.
OBJECTIVES IN THE MODELING OF SYSTEMS:
SIMULATION MODELING
The flexibility of simulation is not without drawbacks:
The development of a simulation model is usually
costly in both time and resources; moreover, the
execution of some simulation models, even on the
fastest computers, may be slow
ART OF MODELING
An Operation Research study must be rooted in
teamwork, where both the OR analyst and the client
work side by side. The OR analysis with their expertise
in modeling will need the experience and cooperation
of the client for whom the study is being carried out.
 ART OF MODELING
As a decision making tool, OR must be viewed as both a science and
an art.
It is a science by virtue of the embodying mathematical techniques it
presents, and it is an art because the success of all the phases that
precedes and succeeds the solution of the mathematical model
depends largely on the creativity and expertise of the OR team.
Willemain (1994) advices that “effective [OR] practice requires more
than analytical competence: It also requires among other attributes,
technical judgment (for example, when and how to use a given
techniques) and skills in communication and organization survival”.
It is difficult to prescribe specific courses of action (similar to those
dictated by the precise theory of mathematical models) for these
intangible factors. As such, we would consider the general guidelines
for the implementation of OR in precise.
 ART OF MODELING
The principal phases for implementing OR in practice includes:
• Definition of the problem
• Construction of the model
• Solution of the model
• Validation of the model
• Implementation of the solution
1. PROBLEM DEFINITION
This involves defining the scope of the problem under
investigation. This is a function that should be carried out by the
entire OR team.
 ART OF MODELING
The end result of the investigation is to identify three principal
elements of the decision problem namely:
• The description of the decision alternatives
• The determination of the objectives of the study
• The specification of the limitations under which the modeled
system operates
2. MODEL CONSTRUCTION
This entails translating the problem definition into mathematical
relationships. If the resulting model fits into one of the standard
mathematical models, such as linear programming, a situation is usually
attainable by using available algorithms.
Alternatively, if the mathematical relationships are too complex to
allow the determination of an analytic solution, the OR team may opt
to simplify the model and use a heuristic approach, or the team may
consider the use of simulation, if appropriate.
 ART OF MODELING
• In some cases, a combination of mathematical simulation and heuristic
modeling may be appropriate for solving the decision problem.
3. MODEL SOLUTION
This is the simplest of all OR phases because it entails the use of well –
defined optimization algorithms. An important aspect of the model solution
phase is sensitivity analysis. It deals with obtaining additional information
about the behavior of the optimum solution when the model undergoes
some parameter variations. Sensitivity analysis is particularly needed when
the parameters of the model cannot be estimated accurately. In this case, it
is important to study the behavior of the optimum solution in the
neighborhood of the initial estimates of the model’s parameters.
4. MODEL VALIDITY
This checks whether of not the proposed system does what it is supposed
to do. That is, does the model provide a reasonable prediction of the
behavior of the system under study?
 ART OF MODELING
Initially, the OR team should be convinced that the output of the model
doesn’t contain element of surprises. In other words, does the solution
make sense? Are the results intuitively acceptable?
On the formal side, a common method for checking the validity of a model
is to compare its output with historical output data. The model is valid, if
under similar input conditions, it reproduces past performance.
Generally however, there is no assurance that future performance will
continue to duplicate past behaviors. Also, because the model is usually
based on careful examination of past data, the proposed comparisons
should be favorable
5. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE SOLUTION
Implementation of the solution of a validated model involves the translation
of the model’s results into operating instructions, used in understandable
form to the individuals who will administer the recommended system; and
the burden of this task lies primarily with the OR team.
 INFORMATION SYSTEMS
A system is a group of related components that
serve a common purpose, and it usually requires
some type of orderly management.
An information system manages the data needed
by a business system, keeps records and maintains
the various facts and figures needed to run the
business.
An information system consists of:
Data, People, Procedures, and Machineries
 System Analysis And Design
This refers to an aspect of the process of creating or modifying
an information system in order to meet the needs and goals of
a given business system.
It is also a system that seeks to analyse data inputs or flow
systematically, processing or transforming data, data storage,
and information output, within the context of a particular
process or business.
When a business decides that it has overgrown its current
information system, it goes through the process of analysis and
design as it attempts to remedy the problem.
Analysis is the phase in which the requirements for a new
Information systems are identified.
The design is the phase in which the requirements
are used to create actual plans for the new
system.
Furthermore, system analysis and design is used
to analyse, design, and implement improvement
in the functioning of businesses that can be
accomplished through the use of computerized
information system.
 ROLES OF THE SYSTEM ANALYST
The system analyst systematically assesses how business
functions by examining the inputting and the processing of
data and the outputting of information with the intent of
improving organizational processes. There are basically 3
roles:
1. Consultant: The system analyst frequently acts as a
system consultant, that is hired specifically to address
information system issues within a business. This can be a
demerit because an organization’s true culture can never be
fully known to an outsider, and a merit because of the fresh
perspective an outsider can bring with them.
2. Supporting Expert: As a supporting expert within a business
where the analyst is regularly employed in some system’s
capacity, he/she draws on professional expertise concerning
computer hardware and software, and their uses in the
business.
3. An agent of change: An agent of change is one who serves
as a catalyst for change, develops a plan for change, and works
with others in facilitating that change. In addition, he/she
should teach users the process of change because, changes in
the information systems don’t occur independently but cause
changes in the rest of the organization as well
 CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD ANALYST

1. Must enjoy working with people (as a translator buffer

between programmers, managers and users;
communicating with widely defined audiences)
2. Must be a diplomat and a good motivator (eliciting
cooperation and better enthusiasm from team members
to users; remembering that the way an idea is presented
can be just as important as the idea itself)
3. Must be able to work in a project team, either as a team
member or leader (putting aside personal
prejudices/grievances in order to help the team as a
whole to function more effectively)
4. Must have well developed problem solving skills
(being able to identify symptoms, causes, and solution
to problems, through an organized creative approach or
else, the analyst can be tempted to solve new problems
with the same old solutions, and can become easily
overwhelmed by the scope and details of the problem)
5. Must serve as a business generalist (being able to look
at the system as a programmer, manager, user, and
company financial officer; maintaining a broad business
perspective at all times
 SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PHASE CYCLE
A predictable series of phases from birth to death that all
information systems of all types go through. The Seven
phases of SDPC are:
1. Problem recognition
2. Feasibility studies
3. Analysis
4. Design
5. Construction
6. Conversion and
7. Maintenance.
 1. Problem recognition
When managers or users realise either that an information
system is needed for a new business (formal review) or
that the information system on existing business is no
longer reflective of the organization’s function(complaints
from users), the birth of a new system occurs.
For example, a business might have expanded
considerably while it’s information system remains the
same, or perhaps the current information system simply
doesn’t offer functions that management believes are
necessary for the future growth of the business.
 2. Feasibility Studies
The purpose of feasibility studies is to define a problem and
to decide whether or not the system is viable or achievable,
spending a minimum amount of time and money in the
effort.
A system analyst quickly studies the problems to assess it’s
magnitude, and at the same time attempt to restrict (or at
least identify) the scope of the project (since a change to
one part of the system can quickly mushroom throughout
other areas).
It is critical to decide upfront exactly what will and will not
be included in the current project
The analyst lists precisely what is wrong with the current
system as well as what will be required of any new system.
The analyst must determine if the needed system is
technically, humanly and economically feasibly for the
organization.
The analyst must determine the system’s economic
feasibility roughly estimating the time it will take to
develop the system, the cost to build and to maintain it,
and the benefits to deliver.
The cost (salaries, supplies, equipment, etc.) must be
estimated for both the initial development efforts, and
daily operations after the system is installed, and also the
evaluation of the benefits of the system
Describing Project/System’s Scope
During this activity, an agreement should be reached on the
following questions:
• What problem or opportunity does the project address?
• What are the quantifiable results to be achieved?
• What needs to be done?
• How will success be measured?
• How will we know when we are finished?
After defining the scope of the project, your next objective is
to identify and document general alternative solutions for
the current business problem or opportunity.
You must then assess the feasibility of each alternative
solution and choose which to consider during subsequent
SDLC phases.
Assessing Project Feasibility
Most information systems projects have budgets and
deadlines.
Assessing project feasibility is a required task that can be a
large undertaking because it requires you, as a systems
analyst, to evaluate a wide range of factors.
Although the specifics of a given project will dictate which
factors are most important, most feasibility factors fall into
the following six categories:
1. Economic 2. Operational
3. Technical 4. Schedule
5. Legal and contractual 6. Political
 Economic Feasibility
Economic Feasibility
The purpose for assessing economic feasibility is to
identify the financial benefits and costs associated
with the development project. Economic feasibility
is often referred to as cost-benefit analysis.
• Economic feasibility
A process of identifying the financial benefits and
costs associated with a development project.
 Operational feasibility
Operational feasibility is the process of examining the likelihood that
the project will attain its desired objectives.
The goal of this study is to understand the degree to which the proposed
system will likely solve the business problems or take advantage of the
opportunities outlined in the system service request or project
identification study.
In other words, assessing operational feasibility requires that you gain a
clear understanding of how an IS will fit into the current day-to-day
operations of the organization.
• Operational feasibility
The process of assessing the degree to which a proposed system solves
business problems or takes advantage of business opportunities.
 Technical Feasibility
The goal of technical feasibility is to understand the
development organization’s ability to construct the proposed
system.
This analysis should include an assessment of the
development group’s understanding of the possible target
hardware, software, and operating environments to be used,
as well as, system size, complexity, and the group’s
experience with similar systems.
• Technical feasibility
The process of assessing the development organization’s
ability to construct a proposed system.
 Schedule Feasibility
Schedule feasibility considers the likelihood that all potential time
frames and completion date schedules can be met and that meeting
these dates will be sufficient for dealing with the needs of the
organization.
For example, a system may have to be operational by a government-
imposed deadline by a particular point in the business cycle (such as
the beginning of the season when new products are introduced), or
at least by the time a competitor is expected to introduce a similar
system.
• Schedule feasibility
The process of assessing the degree to which the potential time
frame and completion dates for all major activities within a project
meet organizational deadlines and constraints for effecting change.
 Legal and Contractual Feasibility
Assessing legal and contractual feasibility requires that you
gain an understanding of any potential legal and contractual
ramifications due to the construction of the system.
Considerations might include copyright or nondisclosure
infringements, labor laws, antitrust legislation (which might
limit the creation of systems to share data with other
organizations), foreign trade regulations (e.g., some
countries limit access to employee data by foreign
corporations), and financial reporting standards as well as
current or pending contractual obligations.
Typically, legal and contractual feasibility is a
greater consideration if your organization has
historically used an outside organization for
specific systems or services that you now are
considering handling yourself.
• Legal and contractual feasibility
The process of assessing potential legal and
contractual ramifications due to the construction
of a system.
 Political Feasibility
Assessing political feasibility involves understanding how key
stakeholders within the organization view the proposed system.
Because an information system may affect the distribution of
information within the organization, and thus the distribution
of power, the construction of an IS can have political
ramifications.
Those stakeholders not supporting the project may take steps
to block, disrupt, or change the project’s intended focus.
• Political feasibility
The process of evaluating how key stakeholders within the
organization view the proposed system.
 3. Analysis
This phase consist first of studying the current system (if there is
one) for it is difficult to design a new system without thoroughly
understanding the old one.
This step is followed by defining the requirements of the new
system. Here, the analyst uses facts gathering techniques such
as
Reading existing documentation
Examining current procedures and
Interviewing users and managers who deals with the system.
EXISTING DOCUMENTATION consists of such items as instruction
& reference manuals, and organizational tracts
Together, these items tell the analyst the purpose of the
system and perhaps reveal why it was designed the way it
was.
EXAMINING CURRENT PROCEDURES shows the analyst
how the system actually works which may or may not be
the same as how it was intended to work.
INTERVIEWING USERS AND MANAGERS allows the analyst
to tap the expertise of the people most involved in the
system.
These people must be interviewed skilfully if the analyst is
to extract the needed data.
After the necessary facts are gathered, they are
used to compute the analyst’ understanding of the
current system and the “wish list” for the new ones.
Diagrams may be used to document the current
system. The analyst may also use the facts that
have been gathered to prepare a prototype, which
is an abbreviated version of the new system.
He can then show the prototype to users, letting
them play with it and make suggestions.
 4. Design
The analyst uses the management’s decisions from the analysis
traced to make final improvement decisions.
The analyst transforms the final decisions of the analysis trace,
into the hierarchical diagram of the design phase.
This transformation allows the analyst to see exactly what
programs are needed and how they are related to one another.
The analyst decides on program structure, program interphases
and hierarchy or order in which programs would be arranged.
Analysts are actively involved in ensuing that the programs are of
high quality.
When designing the program, the analyst must incorporate
security measures in the system to guard against potential
errors and computer crimes.
The analyst must also design the user’s interface including
all inputs forms, output reports and the format of displays
on terminal screens.
The analyst designs the procedures to be used specifying
exactly how an input transaction is entered into the system.
During the design phase, a database designer plans a
database that will fulfil data and file requirements.
The design specification is the primary output and
documentation of the design phase.
It must contain all of the information the
programmer would need.
Before the programmers would receive it, it is
checked first by the users and all project team
members for accuracy and completeness, then
once again by management, who must decide if
the project is to continue.
 5. Construction
In the construction phase, the computer environment is
prepared.
The program required for the new system are written &
tested and the user documentation & training materials are
developed.
The output from this stage is a coded & tested system, ready
for conversion.
Early in this stage, the analyst must see that technicians
prepare the computer environment properly. This can entail
installing electrical lines and outlets, communication lines,
furniture and air conditioning.
Finally, the computer hardware is installed & tested, usually by the
company, or firm from which it was purchased.
The programmers use the problem & design specifications as
guidelines for writing the program.
The more accurate & complete the specifications are, the easier
the programmer tasks becomes, and the better the programmers
would be.
The analyst isn’t actively involved in programming but must be
consulted if the programmers wish to make changes to the system.
The analyst supervises the writing of the user’s documentation
and training materials.
 6. Conversion
In the conversion phase, the company converts from the old
system to the new one.
The analyst plans and supervises the conversion; the data
entry staff enters any required data; and finally the operation
staff will begin using the system on the specified day.
In many instances, data files from the old system can be moved
electronically to the new system, using some type of software
to direct the transfer.
In other situations, particularly if the old system isn’t
computerised, data entry staff must input the necessary data
manually.
Conversion can be done gradually with part of the new
system activated one month and more of it the next
month, or it can be abruptly done by turning off the old
system and turning on the new one on the same day.
For safety sake, “parallel” operation, where both systems
are in use simultaneously for some period of time is good.
Both are fed the same input data and the output are
compared to make certain that the new system parallels
the old one.
 7. Maintenance
In this phase, the system modifications are made after the
system is operational.
Maintenance is necessary for two reasons:
1. The incidence of defect of the system when it was
delivered, and
2. The changing nature of the business environment.
The process of maintenance should be controlled by the
analyst.
When a manager or a user suggests a change to the
system, regardless of the reason, the analyst prepares
diagrams and estimates of its impact.
Then management or a change-control board
decides whether or not to implement the
change.
If the verdict is positive, the analyst modifies all
system’s documentation by merging the
diagrams and estimates into the existing
problems and design specifications.