2.

Basics of Railway Engineering

Design
Introduction
• In all cases, the goals of geometric design are to maximize the comfort, safety, and
economy of facilities, while minimizing their environmental impacts.

• The main parameters defining the track geometry,

gauge (track plane),

Alignment in a horizontal plane,

 Profile (longitudinal vertical plane),

Cross level or superelevation (transverse vertical plane

 2.1.Track gauge

• The gauge is the distance between the inner sides of the head of rails measured 14
mm below rolling surface.

• Rail gauges are usually categorized as Standard gauge (1,435 mm (4 ft 8 1⁄2 in)), 

Broad gauge and Narrow gauge. 
Continued…

• The track guides the conical, flanged wheels, keeping the cars on the
track without active steering and therefore allowing trains to be much
longer than road vehicles.
Continued
• Some of the countries all over the
world which have constructed
lines of Gauges categorized as
standards type(1435mm)
 Continued
• Track gauge is as the dominant parameter as determining
interoperability even if loading gauge is also the other variable, it is
still frequently used as a descriptor of a route or network.

• All track gauges give the same operational possibilities, however

gauges less than metric gauge don’t give high speed operation.

Interoperability” means the ability of the rail system to ensure the

safe and uninterrupted movement of trains which accomplish the required levels of railway
lines performance.
2. 2 Alignment
Of a Railway
Line
Alignment continued..

• Alignment of a railway line includes horizontal alignment and vertical

alignment.

• These basic elements are common to all linear facilities, such as

roadways, airport runways and taxiways. Although the details of
design standards vary with the mode and the class of facility, most of
the issues involved in geometric design are similar for all modes.
Factors to be accounted

• Type of train traffic (freight, passenger, light rail, length, etc.)

• volume of traffic (number of vehicles per day, week, year,
life cycle)
and speed when establishing alignments.

• The design criteria for a new coal route across the prairie
handling 15,000 ton coal trains a mile and a half long ten
times per day will be significantly different than the
extension of a light rail (trolley) line in
urban area.
Continued…

Include ： number of main track, limited grade, minimum radius

of curve, kinds of traction, type of locomotive, locomotive routing,
distribution of stations, effective length of arrival and departure
track and type of blocking.

They are decided based on the function of the line as indicated

on the design standard
The plane and longitudinal section of rail line

Centre line is used to show the place of a line in space.

 The planar projection of center line is called plane section
of the rail; and its vertical projection is called longitudinal
section of the rail.

longitudinal section of the rail

plane section of the rail

Plan Continued….
• The alignment of a railway line consists of: in a straight direction:
straight flat track sections which have lowest resistance

• In the horizontal direction: curves, superelevations, and transition

curves

• In the vertical direction: gradients, vertical curves and transition

gradients
Alignment continued..
• In all cases, the goals of geometric design are
to maximize the comfort, safety, and economy
of facilities, while minimizing their
environmental impacts.

The plane section of the rail is consisted of

straight line and curve (circular curve and
easement curve).
 1. Constituent part of the curve

The circular curve is set when the line turns.

It includes ： curve radius R ， corner
curve α ， curve length L ， tangent length
T
When out of consideration of easement curve:

tangent length:

T  R tan  m 
2
curve length: 
L R m 
180
 The relationship of speed and curve radius for
standard gauge

hR
V
11.8

V——speed of train ， km/h ；

h——elevation of outer rail ， mm ；
R——curve radius ， m
  The maximum speed on curve

The maximum permissible value for elevation of

outer rail:

And the formula can be:

V
hmax  hq  R
11.8
 2. Easement curve or Transition curve
Easement curve is set between straight line and circular curve.

easement
curve
circular
curve
outer rail

inner rail
(a) Without easement curve (b) With easement curve
 characteristic of Transition Curve
curve

① Its curve radius decreased gradually from the infinite to circular curve radius R, or
on the contrary;

② While running, the centrifugal force of train is gradually added or gradually

reduced;

③ The widen value of track gauge is also gradually added or gradually reduced;

④ And so as to the elevation of outer rail.

It is set for safety and riding comfortableness.

 Formula of easement curve

y—— ordinate, m;
X—— abscissa, m;
R—— circular curve radius ,
m;
L0—— easement curve
length,m.
 length of easement curve
1) calculated according to the diminishing gradient of superelevation
 the inside wheel which is impending can't climb up the rail.

point of outside
h wheel

point of
inside wheel
 calculated according to the comfort level of passengers
wheel’s speed of up and down can not be too fast.

h h  Vmax
f  ( mm / s)
L 0
Vmax 3.6 L0

h  Vmax
L 0

3.6f
(m)

f — speed of wheel
L0 — length of easement curve (m);
h — superelevation(mm) .
formula :
600 ωr —— unit curve resistance(N/KN);
  （ N/
r R KN ） R —— curve radius(m);
600 —— experiment data.

600
 
From r R （ N/KN ）

we know: the smaller the curve radius is, the larger curve
resistance there exists, the more adverse influence it has.
With a certain scale, to project the center line and the ground on
both sides of the line to horizontal plane is called the line plan.
Issues in Horizontal Curve

Curve radius’s effect for operating

 It is harmful while it is small, because:

• Limit the speed of train;

• Increase wheel abrasion;

• Increase rail equipment;

• Increase maintenance costs.

 The longitudinal section of rail line

The longitudinal section of rail line is consisted of flat

road, ramp and vertical curve.
1. The gradient and vertical curve
Gradient and length are used to represent characteristic
of grade section.

Length of grade section is refer to the horizontal range

between two grade change points.
Rail – rarely exceeds 1%
Gradient (2-2.5% for industry
lines)

Length of grade section

LRT – maximum 4 to 6%
Up to 10% for short sections
Limiting gradient and pusher grade

（ 1 ） Selection for limiting gradient

The bigger the gradient is, the bigger the

resistance there exists, and the smaller the train
traction weight is.
 Definition:
The gradient which can decide the maximum cargo weight of a
locomotive is called the limiting gradient.
It is often equaled to the maximum gradient.
Conversion gradient

If there has curve on the ramp, the additional resistance is include

of additional resistance for curve and gradient.
so:  ＝ r   i
and the conversion gradient:

ic ‰＝ r   i  ‰   ir  i  ‰
Train resistance

Basic resistance: the resistance exists even the train is running on flat and
straight line; it resists any time;
Additional resistance: such as ramp resistance, curve resistance, tunnel
resistance and so on; the direction of the additional resistance and the train
are opposite.
curve additional resistance:
the resistance is larger on curve than on the straight line;
the increased part is called curve additional resistance, curve
resistance for short.

causes:
when running on curve, there exists more friction.
Additional resistance for gradient

It exists when train is running on the ramp.

Its value i (N/KN) is equal to the thousandth of

gradient.

There are positive and negative additional resistance

for gradient, the negative one has the same effect as
traction.
Issues in vertical Curve

 Overlapping vertical curves

 Gradients greater than maximum
 Avoid lowering existing tracks
 No vertical curves within turnouts
 Elevation control due to drainage
structures
 No vertical curves within horizontal
spirals
C. Super elevation(track cant)

• The difference in height between the outer and the inner

rail on a curve. It is provided by gradually lifting the outer
rail above the level of the inner rail.

• The main functions of superelevation are the following.

(a) To ensure a better distribution of load on both rails
(b) To reduce the wear and tear of the rails and rolling stock
(c) To neutralize the effect of lateral forces
(d) To provide comfort to passengers
As a vehicle traverses a curve, the vehicle transmits a
centrifugal force to the rail at the point of wheel contact.
• This force is a function of the severity of the curve,
speed of
the vehicle and the mass (weight) of the vehicle.
• This force acts at the center of gravity
of the rail vehicle.
• This force is resisted by the track. If the vehicle is
n t)
traveling fast enough, it may derail due to rail ca
c k
rollover, the car rolling over or simply derailing from a
t( r
n
the combined transverse force exceeding the limit it o
le va
e
allowed by rail-flange contact. r
u pe
S
 The relationship of speed and curve radius for standard gauge

hR
V
11.8

V——speed of train ， km/h ；

h——elevation of outer rail ， mm ；
R——curve radius ， m
• Equilibrium speed When the speed of a vehicle negotiating a curved
track is such that the resultant force of the weight of the vehicle and of
radial acceleration is perpendicular to the plane of the rails, the vehicle is
not subjected to any unbalanced radial acceleration and is said to be in
equilibrium. This particular speed is called the equilibrium speed. The
equilibrium speed, as such, is the speed at

which the effect of the centrifugal force is completely balanced by the cant
provided.
Rear view of rail vehicle at right-hand curving, (a) no cant but cant deficiency, (b) equilibrium cant,
(c) cant and cant deficiency
• Maximum permissible speed This is the highest speed permitted to a
train on a curve taking into consideration the radius of curvature,
actual cant, cant deficiency, cant excess, and the length of transition.

The maximum permissible value for elevation of outer rail:

And the formula can be:

V
h max  hq  R
11.8
• Equilibrium cant -is the cant which gives a lateral acceleration of zero,
for a given radius and vehicle speed.

• Cant deficiency (Cd) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a

speed higher than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the
theoretical cant required for such high speeds and the actual cant provided.

• Cant excess (Ce) occurs when a train travels around a curve at a speed
lower than the equilibrium speed. It is the difference between the actual
cant provided and the theoretical cant required for such a low speed.
 Conclusion
As the chain is pulled in a straight line, the remainder of the
chain follows an identical path.
 However, as the chain is pulled around a corner, the middle
portion of the chain wants to deviate from the initial path of
the front-end.

Attempting to push the chain causes a different situation. A

gentle nudge on a short
chain will generally allow for some movement along a line.
However, as more force is
applied and the chain becomes longer, the chain wants to
buckle in much the same way an overloaded, un-braced column
would buckle.
The only resistance to the buckling force becomes the
wheel/rail interface.
Importance of Good Alignment

Railway line constructions are capital-intensive projects,

once constructed, it is very difficult to change the
alignment of a railway line because of the costly
structures involved, difficulty in getting additional land
for the new alignment, and such other considerations.
Basic Requirements of an Ideal Alignment
Serve the Purpose of the New Railway Line
• strategic considerations, political considerations, developing of backward
areas, connecting new trade centers, and shortening existing rail lines.
Fit the Integrated Development of the country
 Economically feasible
• The shortest route, Minimum construction and maintenance cost
Minimum operational expenses.
• maximizing the haulage of goods with the given power of the locomotive
and traction mix
Continued….
Maximum comfort and safety
Aesthetically pleasing
D. Other elements on the Geometry

Line signs
To meet the needs of driving and maintenance, many signs are used to
indicate the position of railway buildings and equipments and the state of
technology along the railway.
Line signs shall be built on the left side of the forward direction, beyond
the locomotive limits and keep the distance no less than 2 m from the lateral
of rail.
 Signal Systems
– Speed Signaling
 Signals set the speed limits for the train operator to
control the
train accordingly.
 Maximum Authorized Speed is still by train and
route type
– Route Signaling
 Signals tell the train where it is going and the
operator knows the speeds for that route and
controls the train accordingly.
 convey route information to the train, and the
engineer must control the train based on the route
and Employee Time Table
Types of signs and the setting place

(1) kilometer post, half-kilometer post are signs of line mileage.

kilometer post is set per 1km from the starting point;
half-kilometer post is set in the middle.

kilometer post half-kilometer post

 (2) curve post
It records the relevant factors of
curve indicating curve length,
easement curve length, curve radius,
superelevation and broaden.
Located in the middle of circular
curve.

curve length
easement curve length
curve post curve radius
superelevation
circular curve broaden
straight line straight line
(3) gradient post
It is used to represent the gradient and length of grade section.
The arrows represent the uphill and the downhill.
It is set on the grade change point.

the front the back the side

 (4) bridge post
Located in the place of center mileage or bridgehead and
marked bridge number and center mileage on it.
 (5) section sign
Located in the boundary area, and both sides of it will
indicate the name of the entity .
 1.7 Railway clearance

Railway Clearance
To ensure the safety, all that buildings and equipment close to
the line, must be kept their distance. There also have certain
provisions for the train.
Types

(1) the locomotive clearance

(2) the structure approaching clearance
(3) the max limited clearance for out-of-gauge freight
clearance diagram
datum line:
vertical: rail surface
horizontal: center line of track
the structure approaching
clearance

the locomotive clearance

When any part of the freight is
beyond the locomotive
clearance, it is called out-of-
gauge freight.
THANK YOU,

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