BASIC METALLURGY

AND

HEAT TREATMENT OF STEEL

METALLURGY:

• Metallurgy is the science of extraction of

metals from their ores, and is the art of
making them adapt to use of Mankind.
 BASIC METALLURGY
Metals
• Metals are basically elements which readily loses electrons to form
positively charged ions.

Metals are:
– Almost 80% of the elements are metals.
– Usually have 1-3 electrons in their outer shell
– Form oxides that are basic.
– Are good reducing agents.
– Good Conductor of heat, Electricity
– Malleable - can be beaten into thin sheets.
– Ductile - can be stretched into wire.
– Opaque in thin sheet.
– Highly Lustrous and Dense
– Crystalline in the solid state
– Solid at ambient temperatures (except for Mercury)
 BASIC METALLURGY
Non-metals:
• Non-metals are the elements which readily accept electron to
form negatively charged ions.

Non-metals are:

– Usually have 4-8 electrons in their outer shell.

– Form oxides that are acidic.
– Are good oxidising agents.
– Bad conductor of heat, electricity
– Brittle & Non Ductile
– Transparent as a thin sheet.
– Dull in appearance and non lustrous
– Non -crystalline in nature
– Can be in solid, liquid or gaseous forms at room temperature
 Engineering Properties of Metals

• Strength
• Ductility & toughness
• Hardness
• Fatigue strength
• Corrosion Resistance
• Wear resistance
• Creep resistance
• Resistance to heat and oxidation
 Classification of Metals
Metals are classified in to two groups
Ferrous and Non Ferrous Metals

Ferrous Metals
• Ferrous is an adjective used to indicate the presence of iron.
• Ferrous metals include steel and cast iron (with a carbon content of a few
percent) and alloys of iron with other metals (such as stainless steel)

Non-Ferrous Metals
• These are metals which do not contain any iron.
• They are not magnetic and are usually more resistant to corrosion than ferrous
metals.
• Examples are aluminum, copper, lead, zinc and tin etc.
 Few Examples of Metals
Ferrous Metals Non- Ferrous Metals

Iron Aluminum

Low Carbon Steel Copper

Medium Carbon Steel Brass

High Carbon Steel Bronze

Cast Iron Zinc

Stainless Steel Lead

Tool Steels Tin

 BASIC METALLURGY
• What is iron?

Iron is a chemical Metallic Element.

It has a Atomic Number 26.

It has a bright lustrous metal.

Pure iron is ductile and Malleable.

Iron is denoted by symbol Fe –Ferrum Latin

name
 BASIC METALLURGY
• Iron is existed in the nature in the form of Oxides Ore, Fe2O3.
Hematite, Fe3O4 Magnetite
• It is converted in to Metallic Iron by smelting process in Blast
Furnace, by adding other input materials like COKE, LIME
STONE,
• The product obtained by smelting of the ore is called Pig iron.
which is the raw material for the production of Steel and Cast
Iron.
• Iron Making is a Reduction Process.
• Fe203 +3C (coke) – 2Fe0 +3C0
• FeO+ C -- Fe + CO
• Steel Making:
• Steel making is an oxidation process.
• Primarily reducing the Carbon and removal of impurities
like sulphur, Phosphorous, silicates etc.
• Various Steel making process are:
• Acid Process and Basic process
• Basic process of steel making is more common.
• Processing methods Basic oxygen process,(BOS) Electric
Arc furnace (EAF)are common process.
BASIC METALLURGY

Steel Making Process

BASIC METALLURGY
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT
TREATMENT
• Why Steel is an Impartant Metal?
• The orgin of steel is Iron.
• The ore for making Iron is most abundantly occur in the
nature.
• The Cost of manufacture of Iron from its Ore, and, Iron- to-
steel is less compared to other metals
• Having Allotropic properties.
• Flexible properties, softest to Hardest condition can be
achieved.
•
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
• The various uses of steel which in turn is a measure of
adaptability of steel can be judged from the following
characteristics of steel :
- Hot and cold formable
- Weldable
- Machinability
- Hard, tough and wear resistant.
- Corrosion resistant.
- Heat resistance and resistance to deformation
at elevated temperatures.
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
ALLOTROPHIC FORMS OF IRON

Iron has two Allotropic forms.

.Body Centered Cubic –BCC Known as Ferrite.
.Face Centered Cubic - FCC, Known as Austenite.

• Allotropic form changes with temperature.

BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

• Body Centered Cubic .BCC (Ferrite)

• Denoted by symbol “Alpha”
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
Face centered Cubic. FCC ,Austenite
denoted by symbol“ Gamma” Iron
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

1539c

1400c

910c

768c
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

• The Important Phases exists in Fe-c System are:

 Ferrite
 Austenite
 Pearlite
 Cementite
 Leduberite
• Ferrite: BCC
• It is an interstitial solid solution of carbon in Alpha
iron.
• Max. Solubility of carbon 0.025% at 723c.
• Solubility of Carbon is zerro at room temperature.
• Pure Iron contains only ferrite grains.
• Austenite: FCC
• Interstitial solid solution of carbon in Gamma
Iron.
• Solubility of carbon 2.0 % at 1135c .
• Existing above the critical temperatures. Ac3
and A cm temperature
• Unstable state at room temperature
• Pearlite:
• Eutectoid mixture of Ferrite and Cementite..
• Carbon content is 0.8%
• Forming an alternate layer Cementite and Ferrite
• Amount increases with in crease of Carbon content
of steel.
• Stable at room temperature.
• Cementite: An intermetallic Compound of Iron and
Carbon. Denoted by Fe3C.
• Carbon content 6.67%.
• A hardest constituent in Iron.
• It has a Orthorhombic crystalline structure.
• Leduberrite:
• Eutectic Mixture of Primary Austenite and
Cementite.
• Formed at 1135c during solidification of Iron
containing carbon 4.3%.
• Existing in Cast Iron.
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT
TREATMENT
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT
TREATMENT
MICROSTRUCTURE

• Ferrite < 0.10c • Pearlite 0.80%C • Pearlite + cementite

• 1.2%c
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

Characteristics of different phases existing in Fe-C

System
Austenite Ferrite Cementite Pearlite

Structure FCC BCC Orthorhombic Alternating layers of

ferrite and cementite

Hardness Soft soft Extreemly Hard Harder than Ferrite and

Austenite

Strength Weak Weak Strong Between ferrite and

cementite

Ductility Very ductile Very ductile Low ductility, Between ferrite and
brittle cementite

Carbon  2.11 wt.% C low, up to 6.67% Fixed carbon content

Solubility 0.0218 wt.% C Fe:C = 3:1 0.8%
Hardness of pearlite
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
Steel:
What is Steel?
• Steel is essentially an alloy of Iron and
Carbon.
• Steel contains Carbon up to 2%.
• Can be classified in to Carbon, Low alloy, and
High alloy steel.
• Alloy
• The Term alloy is a combination of more than two elements
at least one is metal. Eg

• Alloy steels:
• steels who characteristics are determined by the addition of other
elements in addition to carbon.
• Alloy steels are Classified in to three groups
• Low alloy steels Total Alloy content less than 2%
• Medium alloy steels alloy content 2-8%
• High alloy steels. Alloy content above 8%
• CAST IRON:
• Cast Iron is an alloy of Iron, Carbon and Silicon.
• Carbon content is more than 2% and up to 4.3%
• Types of Cast Iron:
• Gray cast Iron Spheroidal Graphitic Iron,SG
Iron
• White cast Iron
• Chilled Cast Iron
• Malleable cast Iron
• Plain Carbon steels
• These are all the steels are containg only carbon as a
major elements however they contain some elements Si,
(0.15-0.35%) Mn ( 0.60-0.90% ) their function is not to
influence the properties.
• Plain Carbon steel are classified into three groups
• Low carbon steels : < 0.25C%
• Medium Carbon steels : 0.25-0.60%
• High Carbon steels : 0.60-2.0%
 Low Carbon Steel
Also known as mild steel
Contain 0.05% -0.32% carbon
Tough, ductile and malleable
Easily joined and welded
Poor resistance to corrosion
Often used a general purpose material

Nails, screws, car bodies,

Structural Steel used in the construction industry

38
 Medium Carbon Steel
Contains 0.35% - 0.5% of carbon

Offer more strength and hardness BUT

less ductile and malleable

Structural steel, rails and garden tools

39
 High Carbon Steel
Also known as ‘tool steel’
Contain 0.55%-2.0% carbon

Very hard but offers Higher

Strength Less ductile
and less malleable

Hand tools (chisels, punches)

Saw blades

40
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
Steel can be devided in to Three groups in Fe-C
diagram.
• Hypo eutectoid steels containing carbon : <0.8%

• Eutectoid steels carbon containing : 0.8%

• Hyper eutectoid steels containing : > 0.8%

Changes of phases in steel during
heating and
cooling
CHANGES OF PHASES DURING HEATING AND COOLING
<0.80% carbon.

Ferrite and Pearlite

KANCHI
a b c
 Calculation of Volume fraction of Phases using Lever
Rule for Hypoeutectoid steels
A 0.52% carbon steels contains 33% Ferrite and Pearlite 67% under equilibrium
cooling condition.

Carbon content of ferrite = 0.022 % and pearlite = 0.77 %

Hence according to the lever rule:

0.77 - 0.52 0.52 - 0.022

proeutectoid ferrite   33% pearlite   67%
0.77 - 0.022 0.77  0.022

This is also the ratio of

proeutectoid ferrite:pearlite at
room temperature, “ e ”.
CHANGES OF PHASE DURING HEATING AND COOLING
Carbon content > 0.8%
Pearlite and Grain Boundry Cementite

Cementite is a compound of Iron and carbon.

A hardest constituent in Iron carbon system.

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 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
PART 2
• HEATREATMENT OF STEEL:

It is a combination process of heating and

cooling of a solid metal or alloy to achieve
the desired mechanical properties.
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

• Why Heat Treatment ?

• To achieve the desired properties such as strength,

Toughness, Wear and Corrosive resistance as well
as to relieve the internal stresses.

• Also to soften for better formability, machinability

and Cold forgeability as well as Drawability.
• Various steps involved in Heat treating.
• Heating: Steel to be heated to desired temp based
on the steel composition.
Transformation of previous structure of steel to
fully Austenitic. This process is called austenitising.
• Soaking:
To attain uniform temp througt the cross section.
• Cooling : to room temp at particulor cooling rate to
achieve the properties.
•
 VARIOUS STEPS IN HEAT TREATMENT

Temperature
Furnace Temp

Surface Soaking
Centre
Heating
Cooling Furnace
water Oil Air
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT
• HEATING: TREATMENT
• Phase changes during heating;

• Hypo eutectoid steel, <0.8%C .

• Initial structure Ferrite and pearlite transform to Austenite above Ac3 temp.
• .

• Eutectoid steel 0.8%C

Initial structure will be 100% Pearlite : transforms to Austenite first. 723c

• Hyper eutectoid steel>0.8%C

• Initial sturcture pearlite and Cementite : Transfom to Austenite

The transformation is nuecleation and growth process.

• The primary Objective is to heat the steel more
uniformly.

• Gradual heating is preferred for parts with

intricate shape. to reduce the thermal stresses

• Preheating is recommended to attain uniform

temp at hardening temp to achieve uniform
hardness and reduced Distortion/Cracking.
• Soaking :
• The time at which the steel is held at the
desired temperature.
• To bring the uniform temperature from
surface to the centre.
• This time is excluding the heating time.
• The recommeded soaking time is about 1 inch
thickness per Hr.
• Cooling:
• Cooling is an important parameter to achieve the
desired properties.
• Select proper cooling rate based on the steel grade.
• Slower cooling rate makes the steel softer.
• Faster cooling results increasing the hardness of the
steel
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT

TTT – Curve: Annealing

Normalising

Hardening
Different phases Transformation from Parent Austenite
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
TYPES OF HEATREATMENT :

Annealing
Normalizing
Hardening
Tempering
Fundamental Of Metallurgy
Full Annealing:
• A heat treatment Process which makes the steel soft.
– The process consist of heating steel above the critical
temperatures.
– Above Ac3 temperature for carbon <0.80%.
– And above AC1 temperature for carbon >0.80%.
– Soak at the same temperature for specified time to
attain uniform temperature thought the cross section.
– Cooling is done gradually in the furnace itself at a rate
of 30-50c/hr depending on the steel
• Annealing Temperature
• Full Annealing Cycle.
Purpose of Full Annealing:
• To reduce the Hardness.
• To relieve the Internal stresses.
• To refine the grain size, which was previously
overheated.
• To refine the As cast structure in ingot.
• To restore the ductility
• To improve the machinebility,
MICRO STRUCTURE OF FULL ANNEALED STEEL
• Normalising
• Heating the steel to above the Austenitising
temp ,soak for desired time and cool it in open free
air.
920 - 930

Air cool

Soaking
Normalising Temperature for Different steels Ref : Asm Hand Book
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Normalising Temperature
• Microstructure of 0.3 % Carbon steel
Normalised
 Micro structure of 0.4%Carbon steel
Microstructre of As Forged Same steel after Normalising
Microstructure of Low carbon steel

As Forged structure After Normalising

Micro structure of Hot rolled Low carbon Alloy steel
Material : 20MnCr5 Same steel after Normalising
As rolled structure
Non uniform distributions of Ferrite and Pearlite
due to improper temp control in Normalising
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

• Advantages of Normalising
• To refine the as forged structure.
• To eliminate the Coarse Grain occurred during
forging or Rolling .
• Improve the machinebility of low carbon steel.
• To reduce the distortion in subsequent heat
treatment operation.
• To eliminate the cast dendritic structure and
segregation
BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

Annealing; Normalising

• Slow cooling in Furnace. • Cooling in open Air the rate

is faster than annealing
• Low hardness. • Hardness improves.

• Poor Machinebility of low • Good machinebility.

carbon steel

• Coarse pearlite and ferrite • Fine pearlite and ferrite

Isothermal Annealing:

• Isothermal Annealing consist of heating steel

to austenitzing temp. and quickly cool below
the AC1 temp. approx. 650°C and transfer in to
another furnace and held charge at the same
temp. until the transformation complete.
Advantage of Isothermal Annealing:
• Shorter cycle time compare to full annealing.
• . Uniform microstructure obtained in thick and thin section of the part.

. Achieving uniform microstructure is possible in a charge.

Application:
Recommended for forgings of low alloy case hardening steels( Gear Blanks.)
For consistent machinebility and
Uniform heat treatment response
 MICRO STRUCTURE OF ISOTHERMAL ANNEALED STEEL;

Microstructure of low carbon steel Microstructre of same steel in

In Normalised condition Isothermal annealed condition
 Spheroidise Annealing:
This process is basically applied for High and low carbon steels to
improve the machinability and forgebility respectively.
Most commonly applied for Toolsteels ,Bearing, industries also in cold
forging process.

• Process consist of heating the steel above or below AC1 temp. (approx.
750°C) and cool very gradually in the Furnace at a rate of 10 /Hr to
680°C and hold for prolonged time and cool in open air.

• Alternatively prolonged holding at below AC1 at 680°C.

BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT
Spheroidising Cycle
Process Annealing /Subcritical Annealing.
• Process consist of Heating the steel below the lower
critical temperature 600-650c
• Soak for desired length of time to get recrystalised
• Cool slowly to 300C
• 600-650

•
• Advantages
• To restore the ductility of previously cold worked
parts
• To eliminate strain aging effect
• To relieve the stressea
• To reduce the hardness due to work hardening
effect at cold drawn stage.
• Recommended for , wire drawing industries, sheet
metal parts,
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening and Tempering:
• Hardening:
• It is the process of transformation of Martensitic
structure in to the steel.
• The process consist of heating the steel to
Austenitising temp. (above Ac3 for hypo eutectoid
and above Ac1 for Hyper eutectoid steel) and
quenched rapidly at the rate faster than the critical
cooling rate.

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Critical cooling rate
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening Temperature Range:

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 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Hardening Temperature for different steels

Steel Grade Hardening Temperature Steel Type

S45C/CK45/C45 840 ~ 860°C Carbon Steel
S48C/S53C 830 ~ 850°C Carbon Steel
41Cr4/42CrMo4/SCM435 850 ~ 870°C Low Alloy
30NiCrMo12/39NiCrMo3 820 ~ 850°C Low Alloy
SAE 52100/ DIN 100Cr6 830 - 840 C Ball Bearing steels

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• Hardening of steel involves three steps
• Heating to Austenitic stage.
• Dissolving all the carbides(Cementite) from pearlite and
transfering ferrite to attain homogeneous austinite
• Soaking :
• Soaking to get homogeneous composition of carbon in Austenite
• Quenching:
• Fast cool to avoid the formation of pearlite and Bainite (High
temp.Transformation product)

•
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Transformation Behavior of Austenite:
Ferrite
Slow Cool
FCC

Austenite

BCC
Fast Cool

Martensite

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 Quenching of steel
• Quenching is the term used for rapid cooling.
• To achieve the maximum Hardness in steel
(100% martensitic structure) the cooling rate
shall be faster than the Critical cooling rate.
• Slower cooling rate leads to formation of
softer phases like Pearlite, Bainite etc.
• The cooling rate depends on the type of steel.
Slow cooling
Medium cooling
Fast cooling
Cooling rate of different quenching media
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Martensite:
• Martensite is a Super saturated solid solution of carbon in
Alpha Iron.
• It’s a shear transformation. Hence more stresses are induced
in steel.
• Volume increases due to transformation from Austnite to
Martenisite.
• It is a hard and brittle constituent.
• A Hardness of Martensite is solely depends on carbon
content.
• Martensite formation starts at Ms
temperature and finish after Mf.
• The ammount of martensite is proportional to
drop in temp.
• Martensite formation is not time dependent
as in case of Pearlite or Bainite.
Microstrucre of Martensite
The Effects of Carbon
• Carbon is the most powerful strengthening
element added to steel.
• The higher the carbon content, the harder and
stronger the steel .
• Most steel containing carbon 0.18 to warehouses sell A36,
1018 and a
variety of alloy steels. These are low to
medium carbon steels.
• Tool Steels are often over .4% Carbon which
can cause cracking during heat treatment.
 HARDNESS OF MARTENSITE

HARDNESS
HRC

CARBON PERCENTAGE
BASICS OF HEAT HEAT TRETMENT
 BASICS OF HEAT TREATMENT
Tempering:
• Tempering is the process of Re heating the Hardened or Normalised steel
below A1, temp.
• Tempering improves the ductility, Toughness.
• Relieve the internal stresses induced by Quenching.
• To achieve the desire hardness/strength.
• To ensure Dimension stability parts

After
Tempering

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• Tempering:
• Why Tempering ?
• Steel in the As hardened condition is too brittle and
practically useless,
• To make more stable condition in the steel.
• In the As hardend condition the as quenched
martensite is not stabel it may crack,
• To relieve the quenching stresses.
• To induce ductility
 Tempering of steel

• Variables associating with Tempering on

mechanical properties are:
• Temperature
• Tempering time
• Cooling rate from tempring temp
Temperature:
• Tempering is devided into three stages:

• Low temperature tempering 160 - 250c

• Medium temperature tempering 250 -
500c
• High temperature Tempering 500 -
680c
• Low temperature Tempering:
• This is done at 160-250c no phase changes.
• Quenching stresses gets relieved.
• Hardness does not drop.
• Microstructure stabilises
• Recommended; All case hardened ,
Induction/Flame hardend parts.
• Microstructure: Dark needles of martensite with
some retained austenite
• Medium temperature Tempering:
• Strength/Hardenss gradually reduces.
• Toughness starts increases
• Recommended for Direct hardened steels
which are subjected to optimum strength and
reasonable toughness(Impact strength)
• Micro structure: Martensite
decomposes ,precipitation of fine carbides
starts.
• High temperature Tempering:
• Temperature 500-680c.
• Strength and Hardness drops, Toughness increases
significantly.
• Hardened steel if tempered between 600-650c is
called Toughneing
• Microstructure: Globulor carbides in Ferrite
matrix(Tempered martensite)
• The best microstructre for Induction/flame hardening.
• Martempering of steel
• Martempering is a hardening process in which
the steel is quenched from austenitic to
above Ms temp. and hold for equalising the
temp of the part and air cool.
• Advantages:
• Minimises the distortion.
• Avoid quenching cracks
Direct Quenching Martempering
• Austempering:
• Austempering is the process of transforming the steel
to 100% Bainite
• Process
• Heating the steel to Austenitising Temp.and soak for
sufficient time.
• Quench in salt bath at 200-300c (above Ms temp)
• Hold the steel till all the austenite transform to Bainite
• Air cool
• Advantages of Austempering:
• Low distortion
• Superrior Toughness at higher hardness level at
48Hrc compared to Hardened and Tempered steel
at the same hardness level
• Single process
• No Tempering is required.
• Steels C45, C50 SAE 1045 SAE 1060 Spring steels
AUSTEMPERING
• Hardness and Hardenability
• Hardness:
• The term Hardness is defined as the following
• Resistance to Indentation
• Resistance to scratchening
• Hardenability:
• Hardenability is the ability of the steel to gets
hardened to a definite depth upon quenching.
• Hardenability indicates
• The capacity of the steel to transform a martensitic
structure from the surface to a core(Centre region)
• Higher the hardenability is greater the depth of
hardening.
• Lower hardebability steels are shallow hardened depth
Different Hardenability

1. Low Hardenability steel

2. Medium Hardenability
3. High Hardenability

D- Bar dia
• Hardenability is measured by the following
test
• 1. Jominy hardenability test

• 2. Grossman Hardenability.( Calculated from

Chemical compositon.)
• The end-quench hardenability test developed by Jominy is more common
and populor.
••
• It is used worldwide, described in many national standards, and available as
an internationalstandard.
••
• This test has the following significant advantages:
••
• It characterizes the hardenability of a steel from a single specimen, allowing
a wide range of cooling rates during a single test.
••
• It is reasonably reproducible.
•
• Procedure:
• •
• Normally the steel test specimen (25 mm diameter 100 mm) is heated to the appropriateaustenitizing temperature and
soaked for 30 min.
• •
• It is then quickly transferred to the supporting fixture (Jominy apparatus) and quenched from thelower end by spraying
with a jet of water under specified conditions as illustrated in Figure A.
• •
• The cooling rate is the highest at the end where the water jet impinges on the specimen anddecreases from the
quenched end, producing a variety of microstructures and hardnesses as afunction of distance from the quenched end.
• •
• After quenching, two parallel flats, approximately 0.45 mm below surface, are ground on oppositesides of the
specimen and hardness values (usually HRC) are measured at 1/16 in. intervals from thequenched end and plotted as
the Jominy hardenability curve (see Figure B).
• •
• When the distance is measured in millimeters, the hardness values are taken at every 2 mm from thequenched end for
at least a total distance of 20 or 40 mm, depending on the steepness of the hardenability curve, and then every 10 mm.
• •
•
FLOW CHART FOR JOMINY TEST
JOMINY TEST QUENCHING PROCESS
Jominy corelation with Round Bar
• Grossman hardenability
• • Critical diameter of hardenable steel bar:
• – Bars of different diameters quenched in different media
• – Bar with 50% martensite at its centre selected as the bar
• with critical diameter Do
• ie. Can’t through harden a bar>Do
• Do – 99% martensite for the whole part
• Too complicated, costly and time consuming
• 50%M+50%P
• Do
• 100%M 100%M
• 100% α+P
• M
• 50%M+50%P
• Ideal critical diameter (DI)
• • Convert Do to DI (more general)
• • Ideal critical diameter (DI)
• – Eliminates cooling rate variability
• – Diameter of bar to form 50% martensite at centre
• with ideal quench
• • Ideal quench: Heat removed from surface as
• fast as it reaches it
• – i.e. assume surface instantaneously assumes the T
• of the quench and stays there
• – H = ∞ = φ/k = heat transfer coefficient/thermal conductivity
High hardenability

Medium hardenability

Low hardenability
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT
TREATMENT
Common Defects and Remidies in Heat
treatment.
• .
1 Low hardness:
• 2. Cracking
• 3. Decarb
• 4. High hardness
• 5 . Exessive distortion.
• 6. Hardness variation.
Heat treatment Defects, Causes and Remidies
Defects Causes Remidies

1. Low Hardness Decarburisation

•Insufficient Machining Keep sufficent machining allowence
stock. to remove the decarb depth in finish
machining.

•Excessive Oxidation in •Use Salt bath, Vacuum furnace.

the furnace, in air - Over soaking of the parts in the
atmosphere. Use furnace.
controlled atmosphere.
Defects Causes Remidies

1. Low 2. Low Hardening •-Select the Correct Hardening

Hardness temperature. Temperature as per the grade.
-Check the thermocouple and temp
measuring instruments and verify any
error.

3. Insufficient Soaking at •-Sufficient soaking time to be given.

hardening Temperature. A 1 Hr min. per inch of cross section
. /thickness of the part shall be
maintained.
•-Soaking time shall be considered only
after the job surface temp is reached.
-In case of dense load, place the thermo
couple at the Centre of the charge and
start soak only after the set temp is
reached.
Defects Causes Remidies
1. Low 3. Unsuitable Quenching •-Select the proper media based on
Hardness media and Cooling rate for the the steel spec .Oil/Polymer./water
given grade of the steel. Alloy steels to be quenched safely in
Oil but Polymer quenching is
recommended.

• -Strong agitation is required to break

Poor Agitation the Vapour blanket to extract the
heat.
-It helps effective quechning by
uniform heat removal and hardness.

Quenching bath temp is too •Too high temp in the bath reduces
high. the heat removal capacity.
-Recommended to cool the media
through heat exchangers.
2.Variation in Hardness 1 Poor Agitation.
2.In correct Prior
Microstructure. Banded
structure and widman
pattern and improper
distribution of pearlite and
ferrite.
3. Insufficient quenching
media.
3. Surface passivation
•Use strong agitation to
flow the quenching media
throut the surface of the
part to remove the heat
• Normalising will help in
achieving the correct
structure for uniform
hardness
•Recommended volume
10:1 for effective
quenching
•Pre oxidation/Preheating
3 Exessive Hardness 1.Quenching media is -Use Correct quenching
chosen is too drastic for media. Alloy steel shall
the given grade of steel. be oil
quenched/Polymer
concentration, as
recommended by the
supplier and plain
carbon steel with carbon
content up to 0.35%
shall be water quenched
2. Carbon pick up in
atmosphere furnace. Rich furnace atmosphere
results to carbon pick
up.
Use the atmosphere
which is equilibrium with
the steel compn.
 1. Improper Tempering -Select Temperature as per the
Brittleness Insufficient t erature and time hardness
at tempring -echanical properties .
- Min Soaking time at tempering shall
be 90 mints.

2. Temper Embrittlement Some steels Eg Ni Cr, with out Moly

exhibit bittleness after tempering 250-
400 and 550-600. In such cases
quenching directly from the tempering
temp in oil or water.

3. Coarse Grain structure. Normalise above the critical temp .

There is no remidies for burnt steel
Over heated during hardening
or prior operation exhibit
Defects Casuses Remidies
Cracks 1. Quenching media selected Use Oil quench for alloy steels . Do not
is too drastic for the given water quench for intricate shape parts
steel

2. Initial stresses due to heavy Introduce Stress relieving

machining
3. Incorrect
Priormicrostructure
4. Delay tempering
5. Coarse grain steel
6. Poor Design . Sharp corners, Avoid sharp corners and sufficient radius
Insufficient radius etc
7. Quench media
contamination Oil mix with
water
Normalise/Anneal
Tempering to be followed immedietly
with in an Hr.
Steel shall have the grain size between
5-8 before heat treatment
shall be given wherever the section
changes
This is occuring during cooling of the oil
thrrough water in pipe line. Make sure
there is no leakage of water in to oil tank
Brittles
1. Improper Tempering
Insufficient temperature and time at
tempring
2. Temper Embrittlement
3. Coarse Grain structure.
Over heated during hardening or prior
operation exhibit
-Select Temperature as per
the hardness
-echanical properties .
- Min Soaking time at shall
be 90 mints.
Some steels Eg Ni Cr, with
out Moly exhibit bittleness
after tempering 250-400
and 550-600. In such cases
quenching directly from
the tempering temp in oil
or water.
Normalise above the
critical temp . There is no
remidies for burnt steel
Defects Casuses Remidies

Distortion/Deformation Uneven Heating,

Quenching rate is too high

Excessive stresses

Improper support of the part

during heating (Fixturing)

Severe Banded structure in

steel

Too strong agitation

Quenching media temp

 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

• CASE HARDENING.
• Why case Harden.?
• To improve the wear resistance,
• To improve the fatigue properties.
• To resist applied load from deformation and
maintain the Toughness and Ductility
CASE HARDENING PROCESS
Case depth is only hardening the outer area or
“case” of a part.
• What type of steel used for case hardening.
• Plain low carbon steel ,
• Low carbon Alloy steels with carbon content
max 0.23%
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT
TREATMENT
• Carburising– Addition of Carbon . .
Temperature : 880c to 930c.
Steels Low carbon, and low carbon alloy steels

• Carbonitriding –Addition of Carbon and Nitrogen.

• Temperature 830-880c
• Steels Plain Low and medium carbon and alloy
steels
 BASIC METALLURGY AND HEAT TREATMENT

• Nitriding -- Adition of Nitrogen only to the

surface of the steel.
• Source for Nitrogen is Ammonia NH3.
• Temp 520-550c
• Nitrocarburising- Adition of carbon and Nitrogen
at 520-570c. Below the Ac1 temp.
 Surface Hardening process.

•
• Induction Hardening

• Flame Hardening.

• Laser Hardening
• Induction Hardening.
• Induction Hardening is primarily Used for
surface Hardening.
• Heating the surface dose not affect the core
properties.

• It is possible to localised hardening at

Functional area.
• How it is done?
• An high frequency current passing through a
conductor the flux is induced. This flux line
passes through a job which induced Eddy
current which makes the surface is heated.

• The depth of Heating is governed by

Frequency and time.
Induction heat treating is heating up a conductive material such as steel using
electricity. The steel is then quenched to create a case hardness
• Advantages of Induction Hardening.
• Selective hardening
• Process is fast and Clean
• Low distortion.
• Cheeper steels can be induction hardend
Eg.C45,
 METALLURGY OF INDUCTION HARDENING.
Steels for Induction Hardening:
The primary requirement of steel to achieve the
max hardness is the carbon content.
Carbon content shall be min 0.35%
Grades : SAE1040, 1050, CK 45, DIN 42CrMo4
SAE 4340, 1141, etc
• STEELS FOR INDUCTION HARDENING.
• Plain Medium carbon steels , Low Alloy
medium carbon steels.
• Carbon content is 0.35% minimum
• Carbon steels
• SAE:1045,C45, C50, EN 8 Series
• Alloy steels
SAE 4140,4340, SAE 8640 SCM435,
• MAXIMUM SURFACE HARDNESS AND DEPTH OBTAINABLE IN
DIFFERENT STEEL.
• Steel Hardness HRC. Depth in mm
• CK45 57-61 4
• C35 52-57 4
• C53 57-63
• 34Cr4 52-57
• C70 60-65
• 41Cr4 54-60
• 42CrMo4 55-60 6
• 100Cr6 60-65 6
• 90CrMoV18 55-59 >6
• 34CrNiMo6 52-57 HRC
• 34CrMo4 52-57 HRC
• 50CrMo4 57-63 HRC

• Thumb rule HRC max= 20+ 60 x √%C

• Influence of Microstructure in Induction
Hardening.
• Annealed Steel with caron content 0.4%.
Coarse Ferrite and Pearlite satisfactory
• Normalised Fine pearlite and Ferrite: – Good
• Hardened and Tempered 28-32 HRC:
Excellent
• Spheroidised Annealed: Poor
• Influence of Initial Microstructure :
• Initial structure is a quenched and tempered
martensitic structure having a hardness of 30-
34 HRC, which leads to fast, consistent metal
response to hardening with the smallest
shape/size distortion.
• Minimum amount of grain growth.
Normalized, fine grain structures are also often
considered as preferable microstructures
Microstructure Suitable for Induction Hardening
 Microstructure not suitable for Induction Hardening

Over Heated Coarse structure Banded structure Decarb

Ferritic SG Iron
Depth of Hardening after various treatment
Induction Hardening of Ferrous Metals
 Various parts for Induction Hardening

Fig 1 Variety of parts that lend themselves to induction

hardening
 Flame Hardening
Flame hardening is another process of Surface
hardneing of metals.
Using Oxy acetylene flame a thin layer at the surface
of the part is rapidly heated above the critical
temperature then quenched immedieately to get
hardened surface.
Flame Hardening
• Steels for Flame Hardening:
• Similar grades used for Induction Hardening
can be Flame hardened.
• Plain medium carbon steels and Alloy steels
with carbon content 0.35-0.55%
• C35, CK45, SAE 1045, SAE 4140, 4340 etc.
• Difference between induction and flame
hardening process.
 Induction hardening vs Flame hardening
• Induction Hardening
• Heating: High frequency
Eddy current.
• Limitation of job size.
• Casedepth can be
controlled more precisely
• Flame Hardening
• Oxy acetylene flame
Suitable for large parts Eg
Machine beds, Guide
ways etc.
Not precisely
 Metallography Part 111

• Metallography is the study of the structure of

metals and of metal alloys through the
examination of specimens with a metallurgical
microscope
 METALLOGRAPHY AND MICROSTRUCTURE

• Metallographic study of the metals involves.

• Preparation of samples;

• Study of the microstructure by using microscope

with appropriate magnification.

• Identifying the Phases and comparision with stds.

• SAMPLE PREPARATION
• Select the area for evaluation from the part.
• Cutting /Sectioning
• Grinding
• Polishing
• Etching
• Examination of Microstructure
Cutting/Sectioning

•
Tips for proper cutting of sample:

• Select the location of area to be examined in a sample.

• Take a section perpendiculor to the axis of the sample.

• Taper cutting leads to erratic results both in case of measurement of

Case depth as well as Decarb depth.

• Avoid Over heating and Burning of the sample , use adequet Coolant
and gradual cutting. Burining results altering the microstructure.

• Use soft wheel, for Harder material and Hard wheel for softer
material.
• Sample shall be mounted in a Mounting press using
Bakelite powder.
• Temperature should not exceeded the Tempering temp of
the parts. Usually 130-150c
Apply specified pressure as recommended by the machine
manufacturer to get a compact mould and cooled.

The size of the mounted sample shall be 25mm , 32mm or

38mm . Length of molded sample shall be 1.5 times the dia.
•

Grinding/Polishing
After mounting the next step is grinding, to remove the deep scrathes
generated during cutting. This is done with the belt sander .
Polishing with different grades of Emery sheets starts from 200.400,
….1000
Change the direction of grinding of the sample to 90 while changing
from each grade. so that scratches of each grade is totally eliminated.
Final polishing is done in revolving disc polisher using velvet cloth with
Alumina poweder/ Daimond paste to get a mirror finish.
• Understanding case depth measurement
• Case Hardened –
• carburised , carbonitrided.
 Induction/Flame Hardened
 Nitrided parts
• Total case depth in carburised case hardened
• Defined as the perpendicular distance from the
surface of a hardened or unhardened case to the
point at which differences in chemical or physical
properties of the case and core can no longer be
distinguished. Total
• case depth sometimes is considered to be the
distance from the surface to the deepest point at
which the carbon content is 0.04% higher than the
carbon content of the core.
Test Bar for measurement of Total case depth
Effective case depth:
carburised and hardened
It is the perpendicular distance from the surface of a
hardened case to the deepest point at which a specified
level of hardness is reached. The hardness criterion, except
when otherwise specified, is 50 HRC. The effective
case depth is typically about two-thirds to three-fourths
the total case depth
Hardenss
HV

550/513 HV

Distance from the surface

 EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH FOR VARIOUS HT PROCESS
1. Carburised or carbonitrided parts (EN ISO 2639)
Hardness Limit = 550 HV/513 HV
CHD (Eht) = Distance from surface to point where the hardness is 550 /513HV
exist.
Induction or flame hardened parts (EN 10328, ISO 3754)
Hardness Limit = 80% x (Minimum) surface hardness.
CHD (Rht) = Distance from surface to point where hardness is 80% of
(minimum) surface hardness.
3. Nitrided parts (DIN 50190-3)
Hardness Limit = Core Hardness + 50 HV.
CHD (Nht, NCD) = (Max.) Distance from the surface to the point where
hardness is 50HV1 above core hardness
EFFECTIVE CASE DEPTH IN INDUCTION HARDENED PARTS
In Induction hardening is defined as the distance from the
surface up to the depth at which the hardness value of 400
or 450HV is achieved. OR 80% of the Minimum specified surface
Hardness
Effective case depth :
Induction Hardened Parts(Ref Std ISO 3754)
Surface Hardness in HV, HRC, HRA, HR...N
Testmethod depends on Hardening Depth, DIN 6773
Surface Hardness Tolerance depends on Carbon content.
This hardness values shall be after Tempering
C45: 56 + 5 HRC, Carbon content 0.42 - 0.50%
C53: 58 + 5 HRC, Carbon content 0.48 – 0.57%
38 B3: 52 + 7 HRC, Carbon Content 0.36 – 0.39%
Measuring Total Case Depth
Visual Measurements of the pattern depth are taken
with calipers or graduated eyepiece.
• CASE DEPTH MEASUREMENT
• Hardness Traversemethod
• Microscopic Method
• Macroscopic Method
MEASUREMENT OF CASE DEPTH BY HARDNESS
TRAVERSE METHOD

Micro Hardness Tester

Carbon content % C Effective Case depth
Hardness
HRC HV
0.28 – 0.32 35 345

0.33 – 0.42 40 392

0.43 – 0.52 45 446

0.53 and over 50 513

Design specified Induction Hardening the spline surface and case
depth 3-5mm
Minimum Surface Hardness. 58HRC.

Heat Treater should Ask the following question.

- Does the pattern run over the shaft or Full end.

- Is 58 HRC As hardened or After Tempering.

- - Does the case depth specified Effective or Total case depth

- - Is the case depth measured on the spline or root of the spline.
TOLERANCE IN INDUCTION HARDNESS

SURFACE HARDNESS

Eg 58+4 Min of 58 Max 62 (Test method Rockwell C scale)

700+100Hv 10 Min of 700 and Max 800 (Test method Vickers with
10kg load
80+3 HRA Min of 80 and Max 83 ( Testmethod Rockwell A
scale )
Hardening depth with Limit of Hardness and Tolereance
Ref DIN 50190
Rht (500) =1.2+0.6mm
 Hardness is simply the measure of the resistance of a material to a force applied by a
hardness tester and involves the use of an indenter of fixed geometry under static
load (Fig. 1).

Hardness measuring methods can be divided into three general categories

depending on the manner in which the tests are conducted:

• Scratch hardness,

• Rebound (dynamic) hardness

• Indentation hardness.
es are best suited for which materials and be careful when hardness testing at the extreme end ranges of a particular scale. For example, performing Rockwell testing in the 90 HRB to

Tips for Success full hardness testing

1) Select the proper hardness scale. Understand which scales are best suited for
which materials and be careful when hardness testing at the extreme end
ranges of a particular scale.
For example, performing Rockwell testing in the 90 HRB to 25 HRC scale might
best be performed using the “A” scale
2) Use your calibrated test block (and be sure to select the anticipated hardness
range). As a minimum, calibration blocks should be run at the beginning and
end of each day,
3) preferably at the beginning and end of every shift.
In extreme situations, calibrations might need to be run before and after a
particular set of hardness tests.
ed to the hardness reading of small-diameter shapes and varies with the scale, apparent hardness and part diameter. Wall charts are available from all major hardness-tester manufactu

3) Clean the part and tester.

Take the time to remove and clean the indenter and anvil prior to each operation and
at shift change. A small amount of debris can alter the reading by several points.
4) Check the curvature of the part surface. A correction factor must be added to the
hardness reading of small-diameter shapes and varies with the scale, apparent
hardness and part diameter.
Refer ASTM E18 also lists these corrections.
5) Surface flatness and Smoothness:
Ensure Flat surface both top and bottom of the part for proper sitting.
. Smooth surface will result accurate and consistent reading, rough or textured
surfaces may give inconsistent readings. Remove any scale, debris, dirt and oil. before
testing.

6) Keep surfaces perpendicular to the indenter. Surfaces should be flat within 2

degrees.
7) Distance between each Indentation.
Do not take readings taken too close to the sample edge. Indentations should be no
closer than 2½ times the indenter diameter from the edge. If the metal buckles
outward, the indenter is too close to the edge and the reading is invalid.

8) Do not take readings too close together. Indentations should be a minimum of

three diameters apart .

9) Thickness of the part to be tested:

Beware of parts or section of parts that are too thin. Unless a special anvil is used,
the material should have a thickness at least 10 times the depth of the indentation.
ASTM E18 contains thickness guides
10) Adequately support the parts.
Large and irregularly shaped parts need to be well supported. Parts that move,
even slightly during the test, produce a false reading. If possible, change the anvil
to one that keeps the part stationary. Also, a component may require the
application of lower loads because case depths are too shallow or samples are too
small for the applied load. The specimen may not be able to physically support the
hardness test load without deflection. Samples may need to be externally
supported or even fixtured
11) Check frequently the Indentor (diamond or flattened ball) for any
damage. At least once a day,
-If the readings are suspect, remove the indenter from the hardness tester
and inspect the tip using a low power (10-50X) stereomicroscope or loop.

12) Apply common sense. For example, poor lighting or lack of proper
magnification on the sample are common sources of accuracy errors. Clamp-on
accessories are available to correct these situations but are seldom used.

13) Throw out the first several readings after changing the indenter or anvil, even
if they are within range
Everyone involved with hardness testing should have and be familiar with the
appropriate ASTM specifications, including E3, E10, E18, E103, E140, E384 and
others as necessary
Tips for Micro Hardness:
 Micro Hardness test usually carried out to measure the hardness of
small intricate thin parts,. It is an impartant and actual measurment of
Case depth of parts of various treatment.

 Micro Hardness test also carried out to measure the depth of Decarb
layer in steel. Ref SAE J416.

 Measurement of hardness of Very thin plated surface with several

micron can be measured accurately.
Testing Method:
 1.Micro hardness tests are conducted on small area ,
choose the loacation in the part for specified area for testing.
2. Select the size of the sample which can accommodate in the machine anvil. It is
recommended to use mounted sample for accurate measurement.
3. Sample Orientation:
• Make sure the mounted sample is perfectly flat, so that the indentor is
contacting the surface evenly .
. The sample surface shall be perpendicular to the indenter
4 The surface of the sample shall be smooth and well polished so that the
indentation mark visible clearly
5. Micro Hardness Testing Machine is very sensitive for vibration.
- make sure the machine is installed in vibration free area to avoid erratic reading
while measurement
6.Ideally, the same operator would perform tests using the
same testing apparatus.

-However, do not assume that your operator or quality control

person is performing the tests 6
n be converted to Rockwell “C” readings. ASTM E140 states loadsThe
of 500
lighter
grams
theor
load,
above
the can
morebeinaccurate
convertedthe
to Rockwell
readings.“C” readings. The conversion error is skewed higher with increas

10) Watch out for the springboard effect. Taking readings too close to.the
edge (<0.0025 inch, 0.06 mm) of a material with too heavy a load will
cause erroneous readings. If lighter loads (<500 grams) are used,
comparative results (only) are possible11)

11)Remember, not all loads can be converted to Rockwell “C”

readings. ASTM E140 states loads of 500 grams or above can be
converted to Rockwell “C” readings. The conversion error is skewed
higher with increased hardness or decreased loads.

12.The lighter the load, the more inaccurate the readings.

13. Aware the history of the sample before testing.