Chapter 6.

Improved Forage Seed Production and Handling

6.1 Aim and Need of Improved Forage Seed Production

• Sowing a new pasture /improving an existing natural pasture requires a

reliable source of seed/vegetative material of species recommended &

adapted for the area

• objective of a forage seed program is to make available quality seed

/vegetative material suited to farmers’ needs for livestock production

• Farmers’ needs are variable depending on environment, type & class of

grazing animal & animal product required

• Needs include forage use for conservation (hay /silage), site stabilization

(erosion) ,etc.
• Reasons to progress of improved forage development include:

 Poor availability of planting material both in amount & diversity

 Imported seed is expensive & difficult to obtain on time

 For example, a kilo of alfalfa seed costs more than Birr 100.00

 Certain forage legumes cannot be successfully grown without

specific inoculum, w/c is not readily available & difficult to handle
6.2. Techniques /Systems of Forage Seed Production

• Current seed production systems can be formal, well developed

commercial activities involving both public & private sector

• Much of forage seed production is informal/traditional seed sector

where farmers do their own selection and seed production to meet their
own needs & may sell / exchange excess seeds within local community

Seed production systems may be categorized as:

 opportunist

 specialized with varying degrees of mechanization

• Within these two categories are four major systems of seed production
6.2.1 Opportunist systems
Labour intensive
• involves hand harvesting seed from existing pastures at roadsides,
in plantations /from other areas
• Is part of informal seed production sector
• method operates well in good seasons with plenty of rain that may
lead to excellent flowering & seed formation
• grass seed may be hand stripped into containers
• flowering stems may be cut with a reaping hook /sickle
• seed heads are then dried &threshed

• Through opportunist system it possible to produce seed of high

quality at low cost, but it may have a low germination percentage
due to a range of seed maturity caused by differences in tiller
maturity at harvest
• Quality depends on skill of grower and timeliness of operations
Mechanized
• may /may not involve sophisticated/expensive equipment
• require some degree of grazing management

• before closure to animals, pastures are heavily grazed/burnt to

encourage profuse tillering
• Pastures are not grazed from early summer growth until seed
harvest time.
6.2.2. Specialist systems
Labour intensive
• crop is planted for seed production by the farmer

• system works satisfactorily only when farmers are offered adequate

technical guidance by extension agents to grow crop & are assured
of reasonable prices for their produce
• 1 to 3 hectares of farmland are used by farmers in this system
• system is used for high yields of high quality seed
Mechanized

• Farmers practicing this system must be highly skilled &

knowledgeable about seed crops & their management from

establishment to harvest

• farmers may process & package their seed for distribution

• Seed harvesting, processing & sales require a highly organized

drying, cleaning & packaging system & the ability to promote and

market seeds

• system is not advisable for use by smallholder farmers because of the

resources required
6.3. Site Selection, Establishment and Seed Harvesting

• most seed production program failures are caused by poor choice

of site & grower selection than any other factor

• best forage seed crops are produced in environments with

sufficient radiation, temperature & rainfall for vegetative growth,

favorable photoperiods & higher temp. for floral induction

• dry weather during maturation & harvest

• Material for multiplication must be chosen to match prevailing

conditions for climate, day length & soils

• Forage seed production sites must be suitable for cultivation, irrigation, and fertilizing

 A climate & soil suitable to most elite forage species or at least the target species

 area must be free of noxious weeds, pest & diseases

 Adequate space to make isolation possible

 Adequate growing season with ample rainfall

 Access to irrigation to make multiple harvests possible and guarantee against fluctuating

rain distribution

 Sunny weather initiate reproductive development, flower opening, pollination & facilitate

seed harvesting
6.3.1 Factors influencing site selection

Climate

• Seed production is generally encouraged by sunny weather

• Areas with abundant radiation especially in the later stages of crop

development are expected to have high seed production by

encouraging rapid growth rates, flower opening and increased bee

activity

• Temperature affects vegetative growth, floral induction,

inflorescence growth and differentiation, flower opening, pollen

germination and subsequent seed set and maturation

• optimum temperature for growth is different for each phase &
varies b/n & within species
• maximum growth of Paspalum dilatatum occurs b/n 27°C/22°C
(day/night) and 30°C/25°C
• but maximum seed production occurs at 21°C/16°C.
Day length

• main environmental factor controlling flowering in many plants

Three basic categories of day length response

 Short-day

 Long-day

 Day-neutral

• Short-day: flowering stimulated by day length shorter than the critical length

 Chloris gayana cv Callide (Callide Rhodes), legumes (tropical Stylosanthes spp.

And Desmodium spp.) can only flower when the days are short enough
• Long-day: flowering stimulated by day length longer than critical

length

 Stylosanthes guianensis & Paspalum notatum (Bahia grass) are

examples of tropical long-day plants w/c flower during long days of

summer & early autumn

• Day-neutral: flowers in days of any length (flowering unaffected by
day length)
 Chloris gayana cv Pioneer can flower throughout growing season b/c
day length has no effect on them
• Most grasses & legumes grown in tropics & subtropics are either day-
neutral /short-day plants
Soil
• soil requirements of forage crops vary
• Some crops prefer deep soils with a good moisture-holding
capacity
• Others (non-competitive legumes) can grow well on less fertile
sandy soils
• soil with good moisture-holding capacity is an advantage,
especially with grasses
• problems of acidity & alkalinity require attention while selecting a
site
6.3.3. Seed harvesting

 choice of harvest time is a complicated decision b/c some immature seeds

will always be present

 Even most closely synchronized crops comprise inflorescences in various

stages of maturity and there is further variation in flowering time within

individual inflorescences

 period in w/c high yields of ripe seed can be harvested depends on the

species /cultivar involved, weather conditions & harvest method

 decision to harvest crop depends on what the head looks like

 Seed moisture content, endosperm hardness/seed weight can be monitored

 but for all practical purposes appearance of the crop is the best factor
• Grasses: A No. of visual indicators for grass seed crops to fix optimum harvesting

time

• Timing: weather conditions, b/c wind and rain can strip seeds from inflorescence

• When harvesting large areas, start earlier to avoid losses

• remove ripening seed by gentle rubbing/by stroking from base to apex of an

inflorescence

• check Samples to ensure that the florets contain seeds by biting individual seeds, or

by rubbing in the palm of the hand to remove seeds

• Crop colour depends on changes in the pigmentation of individual seeds during

maturation

• When a large number of ripening seeds are present, any colour changes in individual

seeds are reflected in the overall appearance of the crop e.g. Chloris gayana.
• Legumes: determinate nature it is possible to deduce optimum
harvest dates by examining head from emergence through to seed
shedding/shattering
• difficult to determine optimum harvest dates for indeterminate
plants b/c of longer flowering period
• Where seed is very scarce, hand picking can take place whenever
sufficient have changed color & environmental conditions allow
• mechanized harvesting, random samples of pods /inflorescences
should be collected regularly & checked until the desired
proportions of shattered mature & immature seeds are obtained
6.3.4. Harvesting methods
• Various techniques to harvest tropical pasture seed
• care should be taken to ensure that harvested sample can
later be cleaned to required standard of purity with
minimum loss of seed & time
• traditional farmers use equipments like knives, sickles &
scythes to harvest their crops
6.3.4.1 Manual harvesting

• small-scale farmers used tools like knives, sickles, scythes & reaping

hooks

• used to harvest entire plant /if necessary, selectively remove seed heads

• cost of tools is minimal, they are easy to maintain/repair, and are

familiar to farmers

• manual harvesting equipment is very labour-intensive (provides

employment)

• With knives, losses incurred from shattering are low, but labour

requirements are higher than for sickle harvesting

• Grass seed heads may be cut with sickles & collected for threshing two wks later

• Heads may be beaten with sticks, roughly sieved & then sun dried

• light threshing is required to detach most of the remaining useful seeds and to

separate detached seeds from the bulk

• Sweating is useful as all spikelets undergo abscission enabling producer to recover

a higher proportion of this standing seed

• gives about twice the yield of direct-heading & Seed is also of very high quality b/c

maturation can be completed in the moist conditions inside the stack

• Similar results can be achieved with direct-headed seed if it is also dried properly

(to 10% moisture or less); sweated seed also stores very well

• should be spread thinly to dissipate heat & even if it gets lumpy, mouldy and grey

seed should not be damaged

6.3.4.2. Mechanized harvesting

• Engine powered machines are good for harvesting

• However, high cost make their purchase difficult and hence, their

use is limited

• machines include mowers, reapers and combine harvesters

6.4. Post-harvest seed Management

• After harvest, seeds must be threshed, cleaned & dried ready for
storage

• seeds contain husks, straw, soil particles & other unwanted seeds
that must be removed through threshing

• cleaning process to obtain good quality seeds of required cultivar

• Moist seeds are more susceptible to damage during cleaning

because they are relatively soft

• Drying reduces seed moisture to a safe level for both cleaning &
later storage
6.4.1. Seed Drying

• Newly harvested seed of all tropical grasses & some legumes is

quite moist

• grass seeds (40--70% moisture)

• dried to safe (8--12% moisture ) to prevent loss of germination,

heating and infestation during storage

• Leaving seed to dry on mother plant is best since seeds continue to

mature & are shed naturally

• However, if crop remains in field for too long, yields may be

lowered through lodging and seed shatter (in wet windy areas)
Seed-Drying Methods
• Three methods of seed drying in sub-Saharan Africa
 sun drying

 natural forced air drying

 artificial drying
A). Sun /shade drying

• seed is spread on a floor, racks, mats, etc in the sun /shade to dry

• important to dry seeds on a waterproof base to avoid transfer of

moisture from ground up into seeds

• Temperatures under sun often exceed 35-40oC (kill seed)

• Legumes can withstand some exposure due to their harder seed coats

• method relies on ambient conditions which can dry /increase seed

moisture content depending on wind, temperature and relative

humidity

• Drying is faster in well ventilated areas

B). Natural Forced Air Drying

• natural air dryers are constructed to take advantage of ventilation

• Seeds are spread in thin layers on beds w/c can be horizontally/vertically

oriented

• Supporting beds are made of perforated materials (sacking, wood /metal

sieves) w/c permit air movement through drying seeds

• drier is oriented with the prevailing wind direction and works on the

principle of hot air rising, which removes moisture

• Horizontal beds can be stacked on top of one another with enough space b/n

to allow air flow

• method is known as ventilation drying

C). Artificial drying

• Used to dry for larger quantities of seed

• allows early harvesting of seed crops so that shattering & possibility of

weather damage are minimized

• Artificial drying equipment relies on increasing air flow around seed, with

/without dehumidification of air by heating.

• artificial drying should consist :

 A fan of sufficient size to deliver a minimum drying air flow

 Efficient heating capacity to raise air temperature to 35--40°C.

 Adequate drying capacity compatible with harvesting rate at w/c seeds will be

received by plant
6.4.2 Threshing and winnowing

• Threshing – separating seeds from panicles & straw

• This process is followed by winnowing to separate chaff from the seeds

• uses wind to separate heavy & light material

• process of separating seed from chaff /pod often requires considerable

energy

• involves dropping material from shoulder height /higher on to a clean area

on ground with wind blowing from behind

• Any material that is lighter than seed is removed & the remaining fallen

seed is hand sorted to remove imperfect seed & non-seed material

• Whether by hand /machine, winnowing is easy to handle

Threshing methods

A). Manual Threshing

 Small-scale farmers use a simple stick/flail to separate seed
from inflorescence & straw by beating crop repeatedly on
floor
 crop/plant parts bearing seed may be beaten against stones to
release seeds
 Hand collection by rubbing/shaking ripe seeds into a container
can provide seed of excellent quality especially when labour is
effectively supervised
6.5. Seed Quality Control Concepts

• to ensure seed performance after planting

• In sub-Saharan Africa, many laboratories do not qualify for

accreditation /membership due to inadequate facilities, lack of

trained personnel/financial constraints

• Quality is a relative term meaning a degree of excellence

expressed as a rating when compared with an acceptable standard

• It may be better, equal or worse in comparison depending on the

criteria and wording used

B). Animal-Powered Threshing

 Animals are used to trample on plant parts bearing seed

 Weights are added behind animals to increase threshing productivity

 method is relatively cheap but is slow

C). Engine-Powered Threshing

 machines can be used to strip seed from panicle without damaging straw

 can be stationary & powered by an engine/mounted on a tractor & taken to field

 most expensive method & usually used only in large-scale operations

 In all techniques care must be taken to minimize physical damage which can

affect germination/allow disease infestation

 In legumes, abrasion can reduce degree of hard seededness

6.4.3. Seed Cleaning

• Is removal of inert matter, other crop seed (weeds) & damaged seed from harvested,

threshed & dried material to increase marketable value

• Cleaning ensures good seed quality if done with right equipment & appropriate

methods, it can increase purity & germination by removal of unsuitable materials

• can also decrease number of diseased seeds & improve visual, commercial & planting

quality of the seed lot

• Seed cleaning can be done

manually by sorting out unwanted material from small seed group

 Mechanical cleaning is more usual due to the labour costs of manual cleaning

• However, machines are not as perfect as traditional manual systems as their capacity

is far greater & cannot facilitate a final hand selection of all individual grains
6.4.4. Seed storage

• stored from harvest to next planting, w/c may be in the next season/after several
seasons

• A number of factors influence viability & maintenance of seed quality during

storage

• most important are seed moisture & temperature

• High moisture contents allow insect & micro-organism activity, which cause
heating

• Maintenance of seed viability depends on conditions experienced before &

during storage

• Damage during harvesting, inadequate/improper drying, rough handling & poor

physical storage should be avoided
6.5.1. Methods for Seed Quality Testing
• Several techniques have been designed to evaluate quality of seed
• Methodologies & techniques have been devised by the International
Seed Testing Association (ISTA) w/c advises members, (accredited
seed testing laboratories), to ensure that its motto "Uniformity in
Testing" is achieved

RH & T°C of storage environment affect maintenance of seed quality

RH has influence on seed longevity b/c it affects seed moisture


Moist seeds are more susceptible to attack by insect pests & diseases


it is important to control seed moisture content during storage


To maintain low seed moisture content, storage facilities must be

located in an area/locality where RH is low


maximum RH for successful storage will depend on kind of seed,

length of storage period & ambient temperature

 Storage periods generally fall into three categories:

a) for harvest to next planting season (1--9 months)

b) for carry over of early generation stocks (18--24 months)

c) for long-term planting material (3--10 years)

 To minimize seed deterioration, following storage indices

should be used:

• for 6 months, T°C + rh% must not exceed 80

• for 18 months, T°C + rh% must not exceed 70

• for 5 years, T°C + rh% must not exceed 55

A) Moisture content determination
 moisture content of seed & storage temperature have greatest
effect on seed viability
 A sample has to be carefully handled to conserve its initial
moisture content for testing
 include packing in a moisture-proof container (metal /plastic),
submitting to seed-testing station without delay & analyzing as
soon as the sample arrives
Air-oven method
• common standard method of measuring moisture content
• involves removing water from seed by drying to constant weight
under controlled conditions
 non-oily species are dried for one hour at 130°C
 Seeds containing oil are dried for 17 hours at 103--105°C
 cereals for 2 hours at 130°C

 maize for 4 hours at 130°C

• Grinding is necessary for some species
• Before determination all apparatus must be correctly
adjusted & the oven set to the right temperature
• Ensure sample is never exposed to air for more than a
few seconds at a time at any stage of the test to prevent
moisture uptake /loss
• moisture content is d/ce in weight before & after drying
• expressed as a % of the original wet weight of the seeds
 Moisture content = loss of wt/ initial wt of seed X 100%
Quick methods
• less accurate
• Several brands and equipment types are available
• quick test method should be calibrated & checked frequently
against standard air-oven method
• Calibrated meters are only suitable for approximate determinations
of moisture content
B) Purity analysis

• analysis separates working sample into three components:

 1. Pure seed refers to kind /kind & variety under consideration

 It also refers to species stated by sender /found to predominate

in the test

 2. Other seeds refers to other kinds of crop seed /varieties

/weed seeds

 3. Inert matter refers to seed-like structures, from both crop &

weed plants, and other matter that is not seed

C) Germination testing

• Germination is emergence & development of seedling

•  Testing in field does not give uniform results b/c of wide range of soil types & other

environmental conditions

• conditions for germination in the laboratory must be suitable for seedling

development in a short time

• It should be noted that these are ideal or "minimum stress" conditions

• ability to germinate under less-than-ideal conditions is not explored in the routine

laboratory germination test

• germination test is most commonly accepted measure of seed viability currently

• Seeds of d/nt species have d/nt requirements for light, temperature & moisture

during germination