Chapter 5.

Management of Multi-purpose Tree for Fodder Production

• Fodder trees are the leaves, pods of trees and shrubs and twigs growing on shrubs,
woody vines and trees available for animal consumption.

• management of fodder trees should focus on maximizing leaf production to safeguard

and maximize the availability of feed during the dry season

• There are certain critical management techniques, which should be applied to maximize

the foliage yield from fodder trees

•  Weeding is an essential cultural practice in the establishment process of fodder trees

Weeding:

• minimizes the competition for moisture and nutrients thereby boosting early growth

and vigor of the seedlings.

• facilitates percolation of water and soil aeration necessary for proper plant development
5.1. Protection of young tree from damages for forage production

• Newly planted multiple purpose tree (MPT) and cultivated forage

crops should be protected from livestock

• Need protection from livestock in first 2 - 3 years of establishment

• It is during the dry season than rainy season that heavy damage is

inflicted to seedlings through browsing and trampling

• most common way to protect trees against livestock is by fencing

(best is the easiest available and most inexpensive local materials

such as thorny branches, sticks and poles)

• Live fences can be used by planting Euphorbia and thorny species
like Erithryna as protection
• This method is more permanent and requires less maintenance and
labour than when using fencing material
• Controlled rotational grazing, introduction of fodder banks and zero
grazing system are also practices that can help in replacing the
loose traditional post harvest grazing which is the cause to the
damage of planted fodder trees.
5.2. Harvesting fodder tree for feed

• identify and use the most suitable species for adaptation for the different

agro ecological zones

• proper harvesting techniques should be used for high quality optimal yield

of forage from planted fodder trees so that the leafy portion is higher than

the stemy portion in the biomass harvested.

• Fodder trees need to be harvested timely and regularly for higher and

sustainable yield
• LogW=2.24logDT-1.5, for trees………………………… (2)
• LogW=2.62logDS-2.46, for shrubs……………………… (3)
• Where: W=leaf DM yield in kg
• DT=diameter of trunk (cm) at 1.2 meter height (for tree leaf biomass).
• DS = diameter of stem (cm) at 30 cm height (for shrub leaf biomass).
• fodder species should not be cut too low
• cutting height of minimum 1.2 -1.5 m is recommendable
• Sesbania is best cut before it is year old and should thereafter be cut
at a height of approximately 1 m
• Leucaeana , Calliandra and Tagasaste should be cut at a height
above 1.2 meter
• Unless fodder trees are cut, they will never produce much leaves
for fodder
• For more foliage production forage the trees have to be managed
correctly and be cut regularly
 There are three type of cutting

5.2.1. Coppicing

• cutting back of the tree at height of 10 - 50 cm from the ground to stimulate production of new shoots

 1. The cut should be at angle

 2. The bark should not be damaged

 3. Only the best shoot should be left when arising from the new stump, when reaching a length of approx. 1

m.

 4. Young coppice should be kept weed free

 5. Coppicing should be done in the early rainy season

• Species suitable for fodder production are not good at coppicing and might even die if they are cut too low

• They are more suitable for pollarding and side pruning

• Species which withstand coppicing are Calliandra and L.leucocephala.

5.2.2. Pollarding

• Pollarding (Figure 2) is cutting back of the crown at a height of 1.5 to 2 m

• main purpose of pollarding is:-

 to harvest the branches and leaves to stimulate growth of a new palatable

fresh leaves to get well formed productive crown

 to reduce negative shading effects on the adjacent crops

• When pollarding is carried out to maximize the production of fodder, it is

better to pollard lower down the tree to facilitate access.

• Not all species can withstand pollarding

• Species withstand pollarding:Grevillae robusta and Erythrina abyssinica.

5.2.3. Side pruning

• Side pruning (Figure 3) is the removal of lower branches from the tree

• mainly done to: reduce shade on the agricultural branches and harvesting

the branches for fodder, fuel wood etc.

• In intercropping system, side pruning should be done before or at the

beginning of the cropping season in order to minimize shade on the crop

• Pruning should be done in a declining angle with a sharp toll (strokes) in

order to allow water to run off and thus minimize the risk for fungal attacks

• branches should be cut 2-3 cm from the stem

• Pruning should be straight from the bottom and then move upwards
5.3. Fodder Trees of Interest for Smallholder Farmers
Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan)
• Botanical description: Erect shrub or short lived perennial herb (2–3 years) up to
1–4 m high
• Adaptation: Adapted to arid and semi-arid environments
 can be used in areas with altitudes up to 2000 meters high

 Favors warm climate, more tolerant of drought and high temperatures

 but susceptible to frost /does not stand frost and excess salinity

 Water logging reduces the yields significantly

 can grow at 500–800 m annual rainfall

 tolerates acid soils

• It is used for centuries in intercropping in different parts of the tropics being an

excellent source of fodder, food and firewood  
Cultivation:

 Propagation: Established from seed sown

 Spacing: about 1 m apart between rows

• Sowing rate is about 20-25 kg/ha.

• For strip planting, sow at a rate of l kg/km of strip

 Treatments: Seed scarification and inoculation are not necessary.

 Fertilizer requirement: Responds favorably to P fertilizer but negatively to N.

Utilization: Dual-purpose crop for food and forage

 For cut forage, it should be topped at a height of about 80 cm.

• does not persist if heavily grazed
• allowed to develop well before cutting
• It can be cut 2-3 times during growing season

Productivity: Up to 12 t/ha DM

Special merits: Dual purpose crop; tolerant to soil acidity

 Can be used as a semi permanent perennial component in alley cropping

systems

 Grown as hedge row for windbreaks, and as ground cover or shade cover for
establishing plantation crops,

• e.g., coffee. Good nitrogen fixation makes it a useful green manure.

• Thrives best in seed beds prepared by deep ploughing

• Seed is sown from 2.5 cm to 10 cm deep

• Actually it is best established by seedling raised in nurseries

• can be sown in rows for inter-row cultivation

• intercropped with grasses, maize etc.

• utilized as hedge plantation around agricultural lands, homesteads

etc.
Use:

• best known as human food (contributes significantly to food security in time of

drought and in marginalized areas)

• excellent fodder species (collected for hay or milling when a large percentage of the

pods are mature because a large part of the nutritive value is contained in the seed)

• CP values of fresh forage range from 15 - 24%

• Its exceptional nutritional value and high productivity can give good live weight

gains

• Main attributes It is more adaptable to high altitude than Leuceana leucocephala,

through not to wet conditions.

• It is non toxic palatable forage and there is a high of seeds in the forages

• It is also adaptable to wide range of soil types

SESBANIA SESBAN
Botanical characteristics:-
 Relatively short lived (6–7 years) shrub or small tree up to 6 m
high.
Adaptation: A wide range of adaptation, 200–2400 m.a.s.l.
 Grows best under moisture-stress free conditions.

Herbage yield potential: The best fodder tree second only to

Leucaena.
Cultivation:

• Propagation: By seed; seed must be scarified by immersing

the seed in concentrated sulphuric acid for 30 minutes

 Plant seedlings at the onset of first rains.

• Spacing: variable according to uses:

 Continuous hedges: 50 seeds/m or 2–3 seeds/hole at 0.5

spacing.

 Alley cropping: up to 4 m or more between alleys.

 Direct sowing in rows/crops along outer edges of terraces and b/n
coffee plants
• Trees can be trimmed for fodder & mulch at beginning of the rains
• tree grows fast and is short lived
• seedlings are more vigorous than Leuceana

Utilization: Cut at 0.5–1.0 m height at 6–8 week intervals

 use as supplement (20–30%) with crop residues

 There is no toxicity if higher levels are fed

Fodder Value

• Sesbania is more digestible (60-75%) than Leuceana (60-65%) and

Calliandra (50-60%)

• but not as drought tolerant as Leuceana

• protein content of leaves varies from 17-30% and they are not toxic

• can be fed to all species of livestock either green or dried

• However production of leaves are quite low and Sesbania does not
respond well to frequent cutting

• Should be cut over 1.2 meter height

• Like Cajanus cajan, life span of Sesbania is short and in order to be

productive the stands should be replanted within 4-5 years
Chamaecytisus palmalensis - Tree Lucerne / Tagasaste

Botanical characters: Shrub or small tree

Adaptation: Wide range of adaptation from low to 3200

m.a.s.l. altitude, the only browse legume adapted to higher

altitude highlands of Ethiopia

 Tolerates infertile and acid soils and droughts once

established

 Needs good drainage

Cultivation:
 Propagation is by seed sown directly /by transplanting
 Spacing 30–50 cm between plants

 Seed treatment necessary

 Dip in boiling water for 5–10 minutes
 Inoculate if possible

Utilization: Establishment is slow

 Commence cutting in the second year

 Cut at 1 m height every 6–8 weeks

 Use as a supplement to crop residues
Special merits: Useful as a multipurpose fodder tree for cut-and-carry
fodder, ornamental, windbreak and for bee forage, fuel wood and
biogas
 Tagasaste can be planted as a hedge and also has potential for alley-
cropping systems
 Grows well on light, well-drained sandy soils on slopes and
hillsides
 It has a wide range of adaptability to soil pH (4.0–8.5)
 Tagasaste grows well up to altitudes approaching 3,000 m in the
tropics and is one of the few fodder trees that can withstand frost as
low as -9ºC in the tropical highlands
Fodder

• CP content of leaves varies from 15-25% which compares

favorably with other high quality temperate pasture and tropical

leguminous tree.

• leaves are free from any toxic compounds

• Seeds should be scarified in hot water before planning

• Fields can be direct seeded or planted from nursery transplants
• Inoculation is recommended for all new plantings
Management
• Young plants should be protected from grazing animals for a period
of 1-2 years after establishment
• plant should be regularly pruned several times per year in order to
produce relatively more foliage and stems
• Stems should be pruned over a height of 1 - 1.5 meter
Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala)

• Botanical description: A long-lived shrub or tree up to 20 m high

• Adaptation: Performs best under warm climate at low altitudes less

than 2000 m, sensitive to frost, drought-tolerant, can grow at 400

mm annual mean rainfall.

• ¨ Altitude range: less than 2000 m.a.s.l.

• ¨ Soil requirement: Well-drained soils; not tolerant to acid soils;

favors a range of soils neutral to alkaline (pH 6.0).

Cultivation: Light cultivation for direct sowing; dug holes for transplanting.

 ¨ Propagation: Propagation by seed sown at 4–7 kg/ha, but different rate or

spacing can be used depending on utilization

 sowing depth: 2–3 cm.

 Spacing when sown 2–2.5 m between rows to up to 4.0 m between rows/alleys

 Usually planted by seedlings.

 Treatments: Seed treatment necessary

 Hot-water treatment 60–80oC; H2SO4 for 10 minutes.

 Inoculation with appropriate rhizobium strain is helpful

 Fertilizer requirement: On acid soils, liming may be necessary

 Companion species: May be planted to pasture grasses in inter-row spaces.

• Utilization: Cut at 80–100 cm height every 6–8 weeks; use as

supplementary ration 25–30%; beyond this level, animals develop

enlarged thyroid gland or goiters because of mimosine (an alkaloid)

preventing animals from using iodine efficiently.

• Productivity: Considered the best fodder tree in the world

 Multipurpose (for fodder, fuel, pulp,immature shoots and seeds for

human consumption, shade and hedge).

 Yields of 50 t/ha (cut at ground level)

• Special merits: Vigorous plant of high yield and high-quality

protein (15-25); leaves and thin twigs well-accepted by livestock.

There are three ways to presenting mimosine toxicity
 Do not overfeed Leuceana, mix Leuceana with other feeds 15-30%
of the dry weight of the feed
• optimal mix is when Leuceana contributes to 30 % of the total DM
of feed given to cattle
 Cutting Leuceana and letting it to wilt or dry off for a week before
feeding will convert the mimosine to less toxic
 Soaking in water for a day /two will reduce the mimosine content
Management

• Young plants should be protected from grazing animals for a period of 1-2 years

after establishment

• pruned several times per year in order to produce more foliage and sterns

• Stems should be pruned over a height of 1 - 1.5 meter

• Weeding should be carried out during the first year after establishment
 5.4.2 Herbaceous Legumes
Alfalfa (Medicago sativa)
 was one of the first forage crops to be domesticated.  It is used as
multi-purpose forage, able to be used for both grazing and
conservation (hay, silage, meal and forage dehydration).
   It can be sown as a pure stand or in mixtures with both
temperate and tropical grasses.
   The seed can also be used for human consumption as sprouts.
Soil requirements
 Lucerne demands deep, well-drained soils with a neutral to
slightly alkaline pH.  It will grow in sands to moderately heavy
clays, provided drainage is satisfactory as it is intolerant of even
short periods of waterlogging .
Moisture
 It is a crop, which is relatively drought tolerant and will produce
yields about in proportion to the water supply. 
 In periods of drought, it will adjust plant density to cope with the
availability of water supply. 
 Its taproot is capable of following water supply to considerable
depths (up to 8 m, but more commonly 2-3 m).  It is well suited to
growing under irrigation.
Temperature
 Optimum temperatures for dry matter production appear to be in
the range 15-25ºC in the day and 10-20ºC during the night.
 However this may differ with the winter activity level of the
cultivar (how quickly it can grow during the cool season). 
 Again there is variation in the way lucerne cultivars react to cold. 
Light
 Lucerne needs high light intensity for maximum growth but its
erect growth habit allows it to compete well for light when sown
in mixtures.
 Young seedlings are intolerant of shading as a result of
competition from broadleaved weeds. 
 Hence defoliation is an oft-used method of correcting weed
problems in establishing pure stands or grass competition in mixed
stands.
Reproductive development
 In the subtropics lucerne plants flower throughout the year. 
 Winter dormant cultivars have a high proportion of plants that have
a long-day flowering requirement but winter active cultivars have a
greater proportion of day neutral plants. 
 The length of time to first flower appearance varies with season as
the plant's response to day length is influenced by temperature
Defoliation
 Defoliation timing is most appropriately matched to the build up of
carbohydrate reserves in the plant's roots. 
 Levels in the roots are lowest about 2 weeks after cutting and reach
a maximum at full bloom.
   This varies with the winter activity of the cultivar and with time of
the year. 
 The timing of defoliation for the older Australian cultivar 'Hunter
River' (which is a semi-winter dormant cultivar) was determined
when 10% of the stems on individual plants were flowering. 
Fertiliser
 Lucerne needs medium to high fertility soils with a neutral to
moderately alkaline pH for optimum production. 
 Potassium, phosphorus and sulphur levels need to be maintained at
the following levels:  K - 0.3 m. equiv./100g;  P - 25 mg/kg, S - 10
mg/kg. 
 The plant's nodules should satisfy nitrogen requirements if
inoculation is effective. 
 Responses to nitrogen fertiliser can occur in winter but the
economics are questionable.
 On marginal fertility soils, responses to magnesium, manganese,
zinc, molybdenum, boron and copper can occur. 
 Test strips of the respective nutrient should be applied to determine
if soils are deficient. 
 Aluminium toxicity can occur on soils with pH of lower than 5.5.
Nutritive value
 It is usually considered the 'King of Fodders' because it grows
throughout the year if soil moisture is available.
   Protein and calcium levels are high, relative to other fodders, but
metabolizable energy (ME) and phosphorus levels are low. 
 ME and phosphorus levels are good in young growth but drop
rapidly as the foliage matures. 
 Intake of digestible nutrients by livestock is higher than for most
other forages. 
 Level of fibrous tissue is low and this allows rapid passage
through the rumen .  Lucerne foliage is highly digestible.
Clover (Trifollium. rueppellianum)
 Regarded as good legume for grazing in native pastures with
potential for use as an annual legume for pasture improvement. 
 Used for intercropping with wheat or barley in tropical highlands to
improve soil nitrogen and quality of residues for livestock feed. 
 Clovers can also be used for hay and silage .  An excellent species
for bee keeping and honey production. 
Soil requirements
 Adapted to a wide range of soils from heavy clay vertisols and
nitosols to loams and sandy loams from pH 4.0-8.0.  Tolerates
seasonal waterlogging but prefers open grassland or cultivated
areas.  It is not salt tolerant.
Moisture
 Adapted to high rainfall areas, although grows well in drier areas. 
Rainfall in its natural range varies from 700-2,000 mm/yr.
 Defoliation
 Clovers tolerate moderate to high grazing.  Grazing late in the season reduces
seed heads leading to reduced regeneration in following years.  They respond
well to defoliation and compete better with grasses when mown to about 5-10
cm.
Establishment
• Clovers are usually sown from seed at rates of 1-2 kg/ha. 
• Seeds are hard and require scarification before planting to ensure uniform
germination. 
• Seeds are small and seedbeds should be well prepared to a fine, firm tilth. 
• Seeds are best sown just below the surface, lightly covered and rolled. 
• Germination occurs in about 5-7 days and young seedlings can be observed
about 2 weeks after planting.  African Trifolium species are highly specialised in
their rhizobium requirements.
•   In its native habitat it readily nodulates with native rhizobia, fixing the
equivalent of 80-100 kg/ha N and nitrogen fertiliser is not required
Cow Pea (Vigna unguiculata)
 Cowpea is one of the most widely used legumes in the tropical
world. 
 The grain is used widely for human nutrition, especially in Africa. 
 It is one of the most important tropical dual-purpose legumes, being
used for vegetables (leaves and flowers), grain, as fresh
cut and carry forage, and for hay and silage . 
 Mixing of different cowpea varieties for food and feed purposes is
common in northern Nigeria.
• Soil requirements
• Adapted to a wide range of soils from sands to heavy, well-drained
clays, with a preference for lighter soils that allow good rooting. 
Wide range of pH including very acid (pH 4), low-fertility soils. 
Better adapted to strongly acid soils than either Lablab purpureus
or Mucuna pruriens . 
• Grows well also on heavy textured strongly alkaline soils.  Does
not tolerate extended flooding or salinity.
Moisture
• Moderately tolerant of drought but excessive soil moisture is
harmful, reducing growth and favoring infection by fungal
diseases. 
• Nevertheless, well adapted to a wide precipitation range (650-2,000
mm).  For forage, annual rainfall regimes of 750-1,100 mm are
preferable. 
• As a food crop for humans, often grown in annual rainfall regimes
as low as 400 mm. 
• Extended water logging or poor drainage should be avoided.
Dismodium (Desmodium dichotomum)
Soil requirements
• The single accession of this species that has been used in
experiments originated from the Sudan and is well adapted to heavy
textured alkaline soils.
Moisture
• It is well adapted to dry and semi-arid environments on clay soils
where it has the capacity to efficiently extract moisture from these
soils.
Temperature
• D. dichotomum has been productive in regions throughout the tropics of northern
Queensland and the southern Queensland and northern New South Wales
cropping systems which are environments with hot summers, with maximum
temperatures frequently in excess of 35ºC.  It is burnt by frosts.
Defoliation
• D. dichotomum is extremely palatable and will always be preferentially grazed. 
Its high palatability can result in it being grazed to ground level so a large degree
of grazing management is important if a seed crop is desired.
 Lablab, (Lablab purpureus)
• Lablab is a dual-purpose legume.  It is traditionally grown as a pulse crop for
human consumption in south and southeast Asia and eastern Africa.  Flowers and
immature pods also used as a vegetable.
• It is also used as a fodder legume sown for grazing and conservation in broad-
acre agricultural systems in tropical environments with a summer rainfall. 
• It can be incorporated into cereal cropping systems as a legume ley to address
soil fertility decline and is used as an intercrop species with maize to provide
better legume/stover feed quality. 
• As a dual purpose (human food and animal feed) legume , it is sown as a
monoculture or in intercrop systems.
Soil requirements
• Grows in a wide range of soils from deep sands to heavy clays, provided
drainage is good, and from pH 4.5-7.5. 
• Low salinity tolerance with symptoms being reduced growth and plant death.
Nutritive value
• Leaf has CP content of 21-38%, commonly about 26%.  Much lower for stem (7-
20%).  Grain contains 20-28% CP . Digestibility ranges from 55-76%,
commonly >60% (leaves).  Grain high in vitamins A, B and C.
 6.5.3 Grasses
Buffel grass (Cenchrus ciliaris)
Uses/applications
• Mainly used as a permanent pasture, but can be used for hay or silage.  Not
suited to short-term pasture because too difficult to remove and binds nutrient.
Soil requirements
 Often occurs in the wild on sandy soils, but is also well adapted to deep, freely
draining sandy loam, loam, clay loam and red earth soils. 
 Although slow to establish on black cracking clay soils, once established it
grows well. 
 Requires good fertility, particularly with respect to N, P and Ca.  P levels should
be >10 mg/kg and total N levels >0.1%. 
 The optimum soil reaction is pH 7-8, but grows on soils with pH as low as 5.5.
 Very sensitive to high levels of soil aluminium and manganese. 
 Apart from soil depth, rooting depth is also limited by high subsoil salinity or
sodicity and low pH (<5). 
 However, does have moderate tolerance of salinity, but not as good as that of
Chloris gayana .
Nutritive value
• CP values are mostly in the range of 6-16%, and IVDMD and CP digestibility
from 50-60%, depending on age of growth, cultivar, and soil fertility. 
• P levels are usually higher than in other tropical grasses and range from 0.15-
0.65% in the DM.
Panicum (Panicum maximum)
 Long term pasture if fertility maintained.  Ideal for cut-and-carry, although
bristly types may cause discomfort to forage collector. 
 Suited to agroforestry due to shade tolerance. 
 Reasonably palatable when mature, providing good roughage for use in
conjunction with urea molasses licks. 
 Has been used successfully for making silage and hay
Soil requirements
• P. maximum grows in most soil types providing they are well-drained, moist and
fertile, although some varieties are tolerant of lower fertility and poorer
drainage. 
• It is Tolerance of low soil pH. The species is generally intolerant of
waterlogging or salinity.
 Moisture
• Mostly grown in areas with annual rainfall above 1,000 mm, while Some
varieties are planted in areas with 800 mm or less.  Drought tolerance varies
among cultivars, although generally they do not tolerate dry periods longer than
4 or 5 months. 
Temperature
• Occurs from sea level to >2,000 m.  Temperature response varies with
genotype. 
Defoliation
• Susceptible to frequent low cutting.  For long-term maintenance of stand, TM
varieties should not be cut or grazed below about 30 cm, and should be cut or
grazed at about 4-weekly intervals to obtain best balance between quality and
quantity. 
Establishment
• Germination should be tested, since seed of some genotypes may not reach
maximum germination until up to 18 months after harvest, while others may
take only a few months.
•   Dormancy can be overcome by removal of glumes from fresh seed.  Seed can
be drilled or broadcast at 2-3 kg/ha, and being a small seed, should be planted
at no more than 1 cm deep.
Fertilizer
 Establishment fertiliser is necessary on infertile soils, using 20-40 kg/ha P, and
about 50 kg/ha N if limited cultivation prior to planting. 
 Maintenance fertiliser is needed for pure grass swards especially in cut-and-
carry systems. 
 Inadequate N will lead to weakening of the stand and invasion by less desirable
species.
   Maintenance dressings of 200-400 kg/ha/yr N are required to promote healthy,
productive stands on less fertile soils. 
 Soils with a pH <5 require addition of lime to raise pH to 5.5-6.
Limitations
 Requires fertile soils.
 Intolerant of waterlogging .
 Intolerant of heavy grazing.
 Becomes steamy if not cut or grazed frequently.
Rhodes Grass (Chloris gayana)
• Used in permanent pasture or as a short- to medium-term pasture ley to restore
soil structure, improve organic matter levels, and reduce nematode numbers. 
• Can also be under sown into maize.  Makes good hay if cut at or just before very
early flowering.  Generally not suitable for silage
Soil requirements
• While preferring well-structured loams and clays of volcanic origin, it grows on
most well drained soils, except very heavy clays, provided fertility is adequate.
Moisture
• Rainfall in its natural range varies from about 500-1,500 mm/yr.  In cultivation,
it is usually planted in areas with rainfall from 700-1,200 mm, but has been
successful at lower annual averages. 
• It does not thrive in areas with more than 1,800 mm rainfall 
Establishment
• It can be propagated vegetatively or from seed.  Planting material can be
obtained by breaking up larger clumps into pieces, or using the small tussocks
along the stolons that establish readily. 
• Either is planted on about a 1 m grid.  A more rapid cover can generally be
obtained by planting from seed, usually at sowing rates of 0.5-1 kg/ha.
 Elephant grass/ Nipper grass (Pennisetum purpureum)
• Mostly planted for cut and carry systems, and not for long-term grazed
pastures.  Also used for hedgerows and living fences, although roots compete
with adjacent crop.  Young growth makes good hay, which can be fed as hay or
pellets.  Coarse stems in older growth make it unsuitable for hay.  Makes good
silage, although inferior to maize and sorghum.  Old growth becomes too coarse
to be of value for anything other than soil conservation.
• Soil requirements
• Grows on a wide range of soil types provided fertility is adequate.  Grows best in
deep, well-drained friable loams with a pH of 4.5-8.2 (mean 6.2). 
• Moisture
• In the wild, normally only found in areas with rainfall >1,000 mm, and on river
banks in areas of lower rainfall.  Although extremely drought tolerant by virtue
of deep root system, needs good moisture for production.  Does not tolerate
prolonged flooding or waterlogging .
• Temperature
• Produces best growth between 25 and 40°C, and little growth below about
15°C, with growth ceasing at 10°C.  Tops killed by frost, but re-grows with onset
of warm, moist conditions.  Grows from sea level to 2,000 m altitude.
 5.4 Nutritive evaluation of forage  
Methods for determining nutritive value of forage
• The main components of forage are
• Water
• Dry matter
• Organic and inorganic minerals
• The organic components are ; carbohydrate, lipids, proteins nucleic acid, organic
acid and vitamins
Chemical analysis for determining nutritive value of forage.
• There are several chemical analysis used to determine the composition of the
forage feed:
• A Proximate analysis (weend’s method)
• B Van soest method
• C digestability
Proximate analysis (weend’s method)
• It is a system of analysis that divides the feed into six fractions
• These are: moisture, crud protein, ash, ether extract and nitrogen free
extraction
 cont

Carbohydrates
Lipids
Proteins
Water Nuclei acids
• Food organic Organic acids
Dry matter Vitamins

Inorganic - minerals
 Van soest method
Van soest method divides the feeds /plant materials into two main fractions:
• Cell content
• Cell wall constituent
Digestibility as a method for evaluating forages
• The first tax imposed on forage is that represented by the part of it that is not
absorbed and is excreted in the feces.
• The digestibility of forage is most accurately defined as that portion, which is not
excreted in the feces and which is, therefore assumed to be absorbed by the
animal.
• In digestibility trial the forage under investigation is given to the animal in
known amount and the output of feces measured.
• The difference between these two values is the amount digested. It is
commonly expressed in terms of dry matter and as coefficient or percentage.
• Example, if a cow ate 12kg of hay containing 10kg of dry matter and excreted
4kg of dry matter in its feces, the digestibility of the hay dry matter would be:
Dry matter consumed – dry matter excreted x 100
Dry matter consumed
DDM = 10 - 4 x100 = 60%
10
 
• This method determines the apparent digestibility. Another
method is true digestibility- the actual digestibility of forage,
measured as the difference between intake and fecal loss of
undigested material.
• This is always higher than apparent digestibility because part of the
feces is a metabolic loss.
 QUIZ
1. ASSUME, if a cow ate 20kg of hay containing 18kg of dry
matter and excreted 6kg of dry matter in its feces, the
digestibility of the hay dry matter would be?

2. Discuss the relation ship of digestibility and voluntary feed

intake ?
Protein value of forage
• The nitrogen content of the forage is expressed in terms of crud
protein percentage.
• Chemically, the crud protein of forage is calculated from its
nitrogen content assuming that all the nitrogen of forage is present
as protein and that all forage contains 16% nitrogen (100÷
16=6.25).
• The amount of nitrogen is multiplied by 6.25 to calculate the crud
protein.
• Example 2 if a cow ate 9kg dry alfalfa containing 1.87kg of CP and
excreted 0.65kg of CP in its feces, what is the percentage of
digestible CP (DCP);
• DCP% [(CP consumed –CP excreted) ÷ CP consumed] 100
• Therefore, DCP% = [(1.87-0.65) ÷1.87]100 = 65.2
Factors affecting nutritive value of forages
1. Environmental factors: climate factors such as light, temperature and moisture
greatly influence the final quality of forages.
Light; is essential to photosynthesis, which produce sugar and organic acids. Light
alone increases digestibility of plant tissue.
• Increasing temperature increases the metabolic process with in plant, decreases
the production of sugar, increases the proportion of cell wall in the plants and
their degree of lignifications and lowers the plant digestibility. 
• Moisture may be excessive or lacking. If moisture is limited, maturity may be
hindered or the plant may go into dormancy. In most species this lowers
digestibility.
2. Maturity, stage of growth:
• As the forage plant matures, the proportion of cell content decreases, but the
cell wall increases and nutritive quality reduced.
• The percent of digestibility lowers with maturity. This one factor probably plays
the greatest role in forage quality.
• The dry matter intake of low digestibility forage is poor. Feed
intake increases as digestibility increases until the animals
requirements are satisfied.
• Above a digestibility level of 65-70%, intake is not affected by
digestibility. In fact it may decrease with increasing digestibility
since the need of the animal are likely to be satisfied with lower
intake.