Reproductive and Hormonal

Functions of the Male

Chapter 80
• Three major functions:
• 1. spermatogenesis
• 2. performance of man sexual act
• 3. regulation of male reproductive
functions by hormones
• Physiologic Anatomy of the Male Sexual
Organs
• The testis is composed of up to 900 coiled
seminiferous tubules, each averaging
more than one half meter long, in which
the sperm are formed.

• The sperm then empty into the

epididymis, another coiled tube about 6
meters long.
• The epididymis leads into the vas
deferens, which enlarges into the ampulla
of the vas deferens immediately before
the vas enters the body of the prostate
gland.
• Two seminal vesicles, one located on each
side of the prostate, empty into the
prostatic end of the ampulla, and the
contents from both the ampulla and the
seminal vesicles pass into an ejaculatory
duct leading through the body of the
prostate gland and then emptying into the
internal urethra.
• Prostatic ducts, too, empty from the
prostate gland into the ejaculatory duct
and from there into the prostatic urethra.
• Finally, the urethra is the last connecting
link from the testis to the exterior.
• The urethra is supplied with mucus
derived from a large number of minute
urethral glands located along its entire
extent and even more so from bilateral
bulbourethral glands (Cowper's glands)
located near the origin of the urethra.
Spermatogenesis

• The primordial germ cells migrate into the

testes – immature germ cells lie in the
layers of the seminiferous tubules)
(spermatogonia) – primary spermatocytes
–first meiotic division form two secondary
spermatocytes second meiotic division–
forms spermatids – modified to
spermatozoa (sperm)
 *
• Location : Spermatogenesis takes place within
several structures of the male reproductive system.

• The initial stages occur within the testes and

progress to the epididymis where the developing
gametes mature and are stored until ejaculation.

• The seminiferous tubules of the testes are the

starting point for the process, where stem cells divide
to produce immature sperm.
• Maturation occurs in the epididymis and
involves the acquisition of a tail and hence
motility.
Stages of spermatogenesis:

1.Spermatocytogeneis

2. Spermatidogenesis

3. Spermiogenesis
 (plural: spermatogonia)

Mitotic cell division

meiosis I

meiosis II meiosis II
►Spermatocytogenesis :
• Spermatocytogenesis is the male form of gametocytogenesis and
results in the formation of spermatocytes

• In spermatocytogenesis, a diploid spermatogonium (plural:

spermatogonia) which resides in the basal compartment of seminiferous
tubules, divides mitotically to produce two diploid cell called a primary
spermatocyte.

• Each primary spermatocyte then duplicates its DNA and subsequently

undergoes meiosis I to produce two haploid secondary
spermatocytes.

• It should also be noted that not all spermatogonia divide to produce

spermatocytes, otherwise the supply would run out. Instead, certain
types of spermatogonia divide to produce copies of themselves, thereby
ensuring a constant supply of gametogonia to fuel spermatogenesis
►Spermatidogenesis:
• Spermatidogenesis is the formation of spermatids
from secondary spermatocytes.

• Secondary spermatocytes produced earlier rapidly

enter meiosis II and divide to produce haploid
spermatids.

►Spermiogenesis:
• the maturation of spermatids into mature, motile
spermatozoa
 Spermatidogenesis:
is the formation of
spermatids from
secondary spermatocytes

Spermiogenesis : the maturation of

spermatids
into mature spermatozoa
During spermiogenesis, the
spermatids begin to grow
a tail, and develop a
thickened mid-piece, where
the mitochondria gather
and form an axoneme.

Spermatid DNA also

undergoes packaging,
becoming highly condensed.
The Golgi apparatus surrounds
the condensed nucleus,
becoming the acrosome. One
of the centrioles of the cell
elongates to become the tail Maturation then takes place under the
of the sperm. influence of testosterone, which removes
the remaining unnecessary cytoplasm and
organelles.
• The mature spermatozoa are released from Sertoli
cells into the lumen of the seminiferous tubule in a
process called spermiation.

• The spermatozoa are transported to the epididymis in

testicular fluid secreted by the Sertoli cells with the aid
of peristaltic contraction.

• While in the epididymis the spermatozoa gain motility

and become capable of fertilization.

• However, transport of the mature spermatozoa

through the remainder of the male reproductive
system is achieved via muscle contraction rather than
the spermatozoon's motility.
 Role of Sertoli cells

• At all stages of differentiation, the

spermatogenic cells are in close contact with
Sertoli cells which are thought to provide
structural and metabolic support to the
developing sperm cells.

• Sertoli cell extends from the basement

membrane to the lumen of the seminiferous
tubule.
Sertoli cells serve a number of functions during spermatogenesis:
• Maintain the environment necessary for development and
maturation
• Secrete substances initiating meiosis
• Secrete supporting testicular fluid
• Secrete androgen-binding protein, which concentrates
testosterone in close proximity to the developing
gametes
• Secrete hormones effecting pituitary gland control of
spermatogenesis, particularly the polypeptide hormone,
inhibin
• They release Antimullerian hormone which prevents
formation of the Mullerian Duct / Oviduct
(paramesonephric duct).
• Each spermatozoon is composed of a head and
a tail.
• The head comprises the condensed nucleus of
the cell with only a thin cytoplasmic and cell
membrane layer around its surface.
• On the outside of the anterior two thirds of the
head is a thick cap called the acrosome that is
formed mainly from the Golgi apparatus.
• This contains a number of enzymes similar
to those found in lysosomes of the typical
cell, including hyaluronidase
• The tail of the sperm, called the flagellum, has
three major components:
• (1) a central skeleton constructed of 11
microtubules, collectively called the axoneme;
• (2) a thin cell membrane covering the axoneme;
and
• (3) a collection of mitochondria surrounding the
axoneme in the proximal portion of the tail
(called the body of the tail).
• Back-and-forth movement of the tail (flagellar
movement) provides motility for the sperm.
• This movement results from a rhythmical
longitudinal sliding motion between the anterior
and posterior tubules that make up the
axoneme.
• The energy for this process is supplied in the
form of adenosine triphosphate that is
synthesized by the mitochondria in the body of
the tail.
Hormonal Factors That Stimulate
Spermatogenesis
• Testosterone , secreted by the Leydig cells located in
the interstitium of the testis, is essential for growth and
division of the testicular germinal cells, which is the first
stage in forming sperm.
• Luteinizing hormone, secreted by the anterior pituitary
gland, stimulates the Leydig cells to secrete testosterone
.
• Follicle-stimulating hormone, also secreted by the
anterior pituitary gland, stimulates the Sertoli
• Estrogens, formed from testosterone by the Sertoli cells
when they are stimulated by follicle-stimulating
hormone, are probably also essential for spermiogenesis.
• Growth hormone is necessary for controlling background
metabolic functions of the testes
Maturation of Sperm in the
Epididymis
• Epididimis – 6 m long tubule

• 18 – 24 hours to develop capability of

motility
Storage of Sperm

• The two testes of the human adult form

up to 120 million sperm each day

• After ejaculation sperm undergo

maturation
• Sperm are flagellated move 1 to 4
mm/min

• The activity of sperm is greatly enhanced

in a neutral and slightly alkaline medium

• -life expectancy of the ejaculated sperm in

the female genital tract – 1 to 2 days
Function of the Seminal Vesicles

• Secrete a mucoid material containing an

abundance of
• - fructose,
• - citric acid, and
• - other nutrient substances, as well as
large quantities of
• - prostaglandins and fibrinogen
Function of the Prostate Gland

• The prostate gland secretes a thin, milky fluid

that contains
• - calcium,
• - citrate ion,
• - phosphate ion,
• - a clotting enzyme, and
• - a profibrinolysin
• - slightly alkaline characteristic of the prostatic
fluid may be quite important for successful
fertilization of the ovum
Semen

• The average pH of the combined semen is

about 7.5

• - once sperm they are ejaculated in the

semen, their maximal life span is only 24
to 48 hours at body temperature
"Capacitation" of the Spermatozoa

• Capacitation of the spermatozoa normally

requires from 1 to 10 hours.
• Capacitation is a functional maturation
of the spermatozoon.
• The changes take place via the sperm cell
membrane in which it may be that
receptors are made available through the
removal of a glycoprotein layer.
• The area of the acrosomal cap is also so
altered thereby that the acrosome reaction
becomes possible.
• This step is a biochemical event; the sperm
move normally and look mature prior to
capacitation. 

• In vivo, capacitation occurs after ejaculation,

when the spermatozoa leave the vagina and
enter the superior female reproductive tract.
• The uterus aids in the steps of capacitation
by secreting
• - sterol-binding albumin, 
• - lipoproteins, and 
• - proteolytic and glycosidasic enzymes
• such as
• - heparin.
• Some changes that are believed to occur
are the following:
1. The uterine and fallopian tube fluids wash away the
various inhibitory factors that suppress sperm activity
in the male genital ducts

2. After ejaculation, the sperm deposited in the vagina

swim away from the cholesterol vesicles upward into
the uterine cavity

3. The membrane of the sperm also becomes much more

permeable to calcium ions
• An influx of Ca2+ produces increased
intracellular cAMP levels and thus, an
increase in motility. 

• Hyperactivation coincides with the onset

of capacitation and is the result of the
increased Ca2+ levels.
• Capacitation has two effects:
• - destabilisation of the acrosomal sperm
head membrane which allows it to
penetrate the outer layer of the egg, and

• - chemical changes in the tail that allow a

greater mobility in the sperm
• The tripeptide fertilization promoting
peptide (FPP) is essential for controlling
capacitation.
• FPP is produced in the prostate gland as a
component of the seminal fluid.
• FPP comes into contact with the
spermatozoa during ejaculation, as the
sperm and seminal fluid mix.
• High levels of active FPP prevent
capacitation.

• After ejaculation, the concentration of FPP

drops in the female reproductive tract.

• Vaginal secretions dilute it and also make

it less active due to acidic pH
Acrosome Enzymes, the "Acrosome
Reaction," and Penetration of the
Ovum
• A thick cap of the anterior 2/3 of the head
of a spermatozoa is called acrosome.

• Hyaluronidase depolymerizes the

hyaluronic acid polymers in the
intercellular cement that hold the ovarian
granulosa cells together
• The acrosome reaction is a crucial step
during gamete interaction in all species,
including man.
• It allows spermatozoa to penetrate the
zona pellucida and fuse with the oocyte
membrane.
• Spermatozoa unable to undergo the
acrosome reaction will not fertilize intact
oocytes. 
• The steroid hormone progesterone has
been shown to evoke critical responses in
sperm cells leading to the acrosome
reaction.

• Calcium has also been shown to play a

central role during the acrosome reaction.
 Effect of Temperature on
Spermatogenesis
• The testes are located in the scrotum is to
maintain the temperature of these glands
below the internal temperature of the
body, although usually only about 2°C
below the internal temperature
 Cryptorchidism

• Cryptorchidism means failure of a

testis to descend from the abdomen
into the scrotum at or near the time
of birth of a fetus
Effect of Sperm Count on
Fertility
• - quantity of semen ejaculated during each
coitus averages about 3.5 milliliters, and in
each milliliter of semen is an average of
about 120 million sperm

• - can vary from 35 million to 200 million

• - when falls below about 20 million in 1mm,

the person is likely to be infertile
Effect of Sperm Morphology
and Motility on Fertility
• sperm could found to be abnormal
physically,

• - having two heads,

• - abnormally shaped heads, or

• - abnormal tails
Male Sexual Act

• A) Neuronal Stimulus for Performance of

the Male Sexual Act
• - glans penis
• B) Psychic Element of Male Sexual
Stimulation
• C) Integration of the Male Sexual Act
in the Spinal Cord
Stages of the Male Sexual Act

• 1. Penile Erection-Role of the

Parasympathetic Nerves
• - releasing nitric oxide which relaxes the
arteries of the penis, as well as relaxes the
trabecular meshwork of smooth muscle
fibers in the erectile tissue of the corpora
cavernosa and corpus spongiosum
• 2. Lubrication, a Parasympathetic Function
• 3. Emission and Ejaculation-Function of
the Sympathetic Nerves
• - the spinal cord begin to emit sympathetic
impulses that leave the cord at T-12 to L-2 and
pass to the genital organs through the
hypogastric and pelvic sympathetic nerve
plexuses to initiate emission, the forerunner of
ejaculation
 Testosterone and Other Male Sex
Hormones
• Androgens include:

• - testosterone ,

• - dihydrotestosterone, and

• - androstenedione
Secretion of Androgens
Elsewhere in the Body
• - the adrenal glands secrete at least five
androgens, although the total
masculinazing activity of all these is
normally so slight (less than 5 per cent of
the total in the adult male)
Metabolism of Testosterone

• about 97 per cent of the testosterone

becomes either loosely bound with plasma
albumin or more tightly bound with a beta
globulin called sex hormone-binding
globulin and circulates in the blood in
these states for 30 minutes to several
hours
Degradation and Excretion of
Testosterone
• The testosterone that does not become
fixed to the tissues is rapidly converted,
mainly by the liver, into androsterone and
dehydroepiandrosterone and
simultaneously conjugated as either
glucuronides or sulfates and then are
excreted either into the gut by way of the
liver bile or into the urine through the
kidneys.
Production of Estrogen in the
Male
• Small amounts of estrogens are formed in
the male (about one fifth the amount in
the nonpregnant female)
Functions of Testosterone

• - is responsible for the distinguishing

characteristics of the masculine body
Effect of Testosterone to
Cause Descent of the Testes
Effect of Testosterone on
Development of Adult Primary and
Secondary Sexual Characteristics
• - cause the penis, scrotum, and testes to
enlarge about eightfold before the age of
20 years
• - causes the secondary sexual
characteristics of the male to develop,
beginning at puberty and ending at
maturity which includes:
• 1. Effect on the Distribution of Body
Hair
• 2. Baldness
• 3. Effect on the Voice
• 4. Increases Thickness of the Skin and
Can Contribute to Development of Acne
• 5. Increases Protein Formation and Muscle
Development
• 6. Increases Bone Matrix and Causes
Calcium Retention
• 7. Increases Basal Metabolism
• 8. Effect on Red Blood Cells
• - the average man has about 700,000
more red blood cells per cubic millimeter
than the average woman
• 9. Effect on Electrolyte and Water
Balance
• - increases the reabsorption of sodium in
the distal tubules of the kidneys
Basic Intracellular Mechanism of
Action of Testosterone
• Most of the effects of testosterone result
basically from increased rate of protein
formation in the target cells.
• - the intracellular enzyme 5αlpha-reductase is
converted testosterone to dihydrotestosterone
• - binds with a cytoplasmic "receptor protein."
• - combination migrates to the cell nucleus,
where it binds with a nuclear protein and
induces DNA-RNA transcription
Control from the Hypothalamus and
Anterior Pituitary Gland
• GnRH and Its Effect in Increasing the
Secretion of LH and FSH
• - GnRH is a 10-amino acid peptide
• - is secreted by the arcuate nuclei of
the hypothalamus
• GnRH stimulates release LH and FSH
Gonadotropic Hormones: LH and
FSH
• LH and FSH, are secreted by the cells
called gonadotropes
• LH and FSH are glycoproteins.
• They exert their effects on their target
tissues in the testes mainly by activating
the cyclic adenosine monophosphate
second messenger system
Testosterone-Regulation of Its
Production by LH
• - the quantity of testosterone secreted
increases approximately in direct
proportion to the amount of LH available
• Testosterone is secreted by the
interstitial cells of Leydig in the
testes, but only when they are
stimulated by LH
Negative Feedback Control of
Testosterone Secretion
• The testosterone secreted by the testes
in response to LH has the reciprocal effect
of inhibiting anterior pituitary secretion of
LH by decreasing the secretion of GnRH
Regulation of Spermatogenesis by
FSH and Testosterone
• FSH binds with specific FSH receptors
attached to the Sertoli cells in the
seminiferous tubules
• testosterone (and dihydrotestosterone)
diffusing into the seminiferous tubules
from the Leydig cells in the interstitial
spaces also has a strong tropic effect on
spermatogenesis
Role of the Hormone Inhibin
• The Sertoli cells secrets inhibin which has a
strong direct effect on the anterior pituitary gland
to inhibit the secretion of FSH and possibly a
slight effect on the hypothalamus to inhibit
secretion of GnRH.

• - Inhibin is a glycoprotein, having a molecular

weight between 10,000 and 30,000 (as well as LH
and FSH)
Psychic Factors

• Many psychic factors, feeding especially

from the limbic system of the brain into
the hypothalamus, can affect the rate of
secretion of GnRH by the hypothalamus
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin

• human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is

secreted by the placenta, and it circulates
both in the mother and in the fetus
• - it has almost the same effects on the
sexual organs as LH
• - hCG from the placenta causes the testes
of the fetus to secrete testosterone
Puberty and Regulation of Its Onset

• During childhood the hypothalamus does

not secrete significant amounts of GnRH.
Male Adult Sexual Life and
Male Climacteric
• The decrease in male sexual function is
called the male climacteric.

• Sometimes the male climacteric is

associated with symptoms of hot flashes,
suffocation, and psychic disorders
Prostate Gland and Its
Abnormalities
• Prostate gland reaches an almost
stationary size by the age of 20 years and
remains at this size up to the age of about
50 years
• - A benign prostatic fibroadenoma
• Cancer of the prostate gland (accounting
for about 2 to 3 per cent of all male
deaths)
Hypogonadism in the Male

• When the testes of a male fetus are

nonfunctional during fetal life, female
organs are formed.

• State of eunuchism - When a boy

loses his testes before puberty
 Testicular Tumors and
Hypergonadism in the Male
• Interstitial Leydig cell tumors develop in
rare instances in the testes

• Much more common are tumors of the

germinal epithelium - teratoma (contain
multiple tissues)