CHAPTER II

BACTERIAL STRUCTURE
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT
• ADDIS ABABA UNIVERSITY
• JIMMA UNIVERSITY
• HAWASSA UNIVERSITY
• HARAMAYA UNIVERSITY
• UNIVERSITY OF GONDAR
• AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CLINICAL PATHOLOGY
• CDC- Ethiopia
 Learning objective:

At the end of this chapter the students will be able to:

• Describe general properties of bacterial cell
• Recognize basic structure (internal and external) of
bacterial cell
• Explain the function of specific bacterial structure
 2. Basic structures of cells

2.1 Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic

– Prokaryotic
• Pro= primitive
• Karyon= nucleus
– Prokaryotic cells are more primitive, small and without
organelles
– Are cells of lower life forms having nuclear
materials /DNA/ which is not enclosed by membrane.
But the nuclear material is distributed in mass through
the cytoplasm.
– These types’ cells are called prokaryotic cells.
Example: Bacteria, Rickettsia, Mycoplism etc
– Their genetic material is not organized in to
chromosome.
– They divide by simple dividing system called
binary fission.
 Eukaryotic cells
– Eukaryotic cells are more advanced, larger, contain organelles
• All higher species: animals, plants, fungi, protozoa, cells of
plants and animals
• Our cells are of the eukaryotic type
– It is derived from two Greece word
– EU =  True
– Karyon = nucleus
– Eukaryotic cells generally indicates those cells of higher
organisms like animals and plants containing nucleus within a
nuclear membrane
– They have organelles with numerous discrete membranes.
– They divide /multiply/ by a process called mitosis.
 Basic structures of cells…
Tab.1.1Basic difference of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells

Characteristic Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Nucleus No Membrane bounded Present with Nuclear Membrane

Organelles No Membrane bounded Present
DNA structure Single closed loop Naked strand with multiple chromosome with protein
no protein

Chlorophyll When present dissolved in cytoplasm when present contained in chlolplast

Ribosome Smaller Larger

Cell walls Present Present some type
Reproduction usually by fission Mitosis
no evidence of mitosis. Examples. Fungi, protozoa, animals, human
Example: Bacteria,Rickettsiae, Chlamydia
 Basic features of Bacterial Cell
• General property
– Typical prokaryotic cell
– Contain both DNA and RNA
– Most grow in artificial media
– Replication is by binary fission
– Contain rigid cell wall
 Structure of Bacteria

Bacterial structure is considered at three levels.

1. Cell envelope proper:
Capsule, cell wall and cell membrane
2. Cellular element enclosed with in the cell envelope:
Mesosomes, ribosome, nuclear material, polyamines
and cytoplasmic granules.
3. Cellular element external to the cell envelope
(appendages) :
Flagellum, Pilus
 1. Cell Envelop proper

A. Capsule and slim layer

- Capsules are often regarded as portion of the cell
envelope
- Capsular constituents vary among the different species
of prokaryotes.
- Many bacteria have slimy layers, consisting of
polysaccharides only; others have proteins within the
polysaccharide capsule.
- Both serve to enable the bacteria to attach to tissues and
to resist phagocytic digestion.
• The basic difference between the capsule and the slim is their
property of firm attachment to the cell.
• The gels formed by the capsule adhere to the cell where as the slim can easily be washed
off.
• Capsule can be detected by Indian ink staining in which the
capsule stands out as a halo.
• Some of the important characteristics of capsule include:
- Usually it is weekly antigenic
- Not necessary for viability
- Endows virulence
- Protects from phagocytosis
- Capsulated strains are invariably non motile
• The organism in which capsules have been demonstrated include;
Pneumococci, klebsella, Escerchia coli, hemophilus influenza, etc
B. Cell wall:
– a non-living secretion of the cell membrane,
– Multi layered structure and constitutes about 20% of
the bacterial dry weight
– Average thickness is 0.15-0.5 m
Chemical Composition of cell wall
• The major component of cell wall is peptidoglycan (PG)
• The rigidity of the cell wall is due to the presence of this a
unique substance called peptidoglycan layer (murein)
• It is composed of N-acetyl Muramic acid and N-acetyl
Glucosamine backbones cross-linked with peptide chain and
pentaglycine bridge
• This PG is found only in bacteria and not found in other
Micro organisms
• Some times called back bone of bacteria.
 Chemical Composition ….Cont’d

PG is made up of two alternate repeating amino sugar and

peptides.
1. The amino sugars are
A. N – acetyl glucose amine (NAG)
B. N – acetyl muramic acid (NAM)
2. Peptides – which consist of 4 amino acids
– L -alanin
– D -isoglutamic acid
– L -lysine (or di aminopimelic acid)
– D - alanin
Fig. Chemical composition of cell wall
 Function of cell wall
• Provides shape to the bacterium
• Gives rigidity to the organism
• Protects from destructive environmental factors
• Provides staining characteristics to the bacterium
• Contains receptor sites for phages
• Site of action of antibody
• Contains components toxic to host (endotoxines)
• It contains unique and varied surface antigens (Ags). the serologic
identification of these Ags is a major diagnostic tool’ and cell wall bio
synthesis is the site of action of many antibiotics.
• The gram stain divide bacteria in to two classes, which differ in their
ability to retain a basic dye after fixation.
– The difference is based on major variation in the structure of the cell wall.
 Types of cell wall

I. Gram positive cell wall of bacteria

– has two layers (Peptidoglycan (PG) cross linked with
teichoic acid)
– The PG layers is much thicker than Gram negative
bacteria and is 15 – 50 nm thick
– The PG layer comprises 50 – 90% of the cell wall and
20 – 40% of the cell wall weight
Fig. Gram-Positive the cell wall of bacteria
 Gram positive cell wall …Cont’d

• The large amount of peptideglycan make gram- positive

bacteria susceptible to the enzyme lysozyme and
penicillin.
• Lysozyme hydrolyzes peptidoglycan by specific cleavage
between N-acetyl muramic acid and the N-acetyl
glucosamine of the glycon strand.
• Penicillin specifically inhibits peptidoglycan synthesis
• Teichoic acids and cell well- associated protein are the
major surface antigens of the gram- positive cell well.
 Gram positive cell wall …Cont’d

Teichoic acid
– These polymers of glycerol phosphate or ribitol
phosphate are located in the outer layer of the GP cell
wall.

Function of Teichoic acid

– Used to bind (keep) Mg+2 concentration in the cell
wall
– Used to activate autolytic enzyme (enzymes which
are secreted by bacteria usually when it dies
– To bind bacteriophage in the cell wall.
 II. Gram negative Cell wall of bacteria

• Is some what complex than Gram positive bacterial cell wall

• Has thin peptidoglycan layer (3 – 8nm)
• Has high lipid content (lipopolysaccharied) in the outer
membrane
• Has periplasmic space.
Fig. Gram-negative cell wall of bacteria
 Gram negative cell wall …Cont’d

Outer membrane
• Contains receptors (sites) for bacteriophage attachment
or bacteriocine (bacteriocine – are antibacterial agents
produced by bacteria)
• It participates in cell division
• Used in transport of materials (either out of or towards
the cell)
Lipopoly saccharides
• It is responsible for antigenicty of the outer membrane
Periplasmic space
• Found between outer membrane(PG) and the cell
membrane
• Mostly contain enzymes and endotoxins.
 (a) (b)

Fig. Gram-Positive (a) and Gram negative (b) cell wall of bacteria
 Cell Wall-less Forms of bacteria

Bacteria with defective cell walls include:

• Protoplasts - Cells of bacteria, from which the cell wall has
been completely removed by chemical or enzymatic
treatment.
• Spheroplast- Gram-negative bacterial cell in which the cell
wall has been partially removed by an enzymatic or chemical
treatment.
• L-forms –Bacterium- Referring to a defective, spherical or
irregular shaped Bacterial cell whose cell wall is partially or
totally absent because of adverse growth conditions as
observed in Proteus,Streptococcus, and Vibrio.
N.B Mycoplasma- A genus of cell wall-less, sterol requiring,
catalase- egative bacteria (family of Mycoplasmataceae).
 C. Cytoplasmic membrane (Plasma membrane)
• It is the actual barrier between the interior and exterior of the
bacteria cell.
• The cytoplasmic membrane exhibits a well- defined selective
permeability, excretion of enzyme, and biosynthesis of cell
well and other proteins
• The bacterial transport system and the principal energy
system (oxidative phosphophorylation) are located in the
cytoplasmic membrane.

Fig. Cell membrane structure

 Cytoplasmic membrane … Cont’d
• It accounts for 30% of the dry weight of bacterial cell
• Chemically, the plasma membrane consists of proteins and
phospholipids.
• It is 60% protein, 20 – 30% lipid and 10-20% carbohydrate
• Although procaryotes lack any intracellular organelles for
respiration or photosynthesis, many species possess the
physiologic ability to conduct these processes, usually as a
function of their plasma membrane.
Function of Cell Membrane
• Regulates the transport of nutrients and waste products into
and out of the cell. (It is selectively permeable)
• Assists DNA replication
• Captures energy in the form of ATP (i.e it is site of oxidative
phosphorulation )
D. Cytoplasm

• The semi liquid cytoplasm that surrounds the nucleoid

and is contained within the plasma membrane.
• The cytoplasm consists of water, enzymes oxygen,
waste products, essential nutrients, proteins,
carbohydrates, lipids and a complex mixture of all the
materials required by the cell for its metabolic functions.
2. Cellular Element Enclosed with in the Cell Envelope

A. Mesosomes
• are complex invaginations of cytoplasmic membrane in
to the cytoplasm seen in many bacteria, but not in all.
– Increase in the total surface area of the membrane.
– Mesosomes are attached to chromosomes and are
involved in DNA segregation during cell division .
– It is involved in respiratory enzyme -activity. (Site of
oxidative phosphorulation)
B. Ribosomes
• Cytoplamic particles, which are the sites of protein
synthesis
• It is composed of ribosomal RNA (rRNA) (70%) and
proteins (30%)
• It constitutes 90% of the RNA and 40% of the total protein.
• The ribosomes of prokaryotes are smaller than cytoplasmic
ribosomes of eukaryotes.
• Procaryotic ribosomes are 70S in size, being composed of
30S and 50S subunits.
– S or Svedberg unit designates the sedimentation coefficient of the rRNA
C. Cytoplasmic inclusions
• are distinct granules that may occupy a substantial part of the
cytoplasm.
• The granules in bacteria represent the accumulated food
reserve. For example,
– Glycogen granules (polysaccharides)
– Poly-beta hydroxy butyrate granules (lipid)
– Polyphosphate inclusions (reserves of PO4)
– Volutin granules (poly metha sulphate)
 D. Nuclear material
• The prokaryotic nucleoid is considered primitive nucleus,
• it is not surrounded by a nuclear membrane
• It does not have a definite shape, and has little or no protein material.
• is concentrated in the cytoplasm as a nucleoid
• The nucleoid consists of one long double-stranded circular DNA
molecule (chromosome).
• The chromosome serves as the control center of the bacterial
cell, carries the genetic information needed for producing
several thousand enzymes and other proteins.
• The size of the chromosome varies according to species.
• Apart from nucleus, the bacteria may have some extra
chromosomal genetic material in the form of DNA, which is
known as Plasmid.
 3. Cellular Element External to the Cell Envelope

A. Flagellum
• It is the organ of locomotion in bacterial cell and consists of
filament
• is free on the surface of bacterial cell
• Size: 3-20m in length and 0.01-0.013m in diameter.
• It is composed of protein named as flagellin
• The flagellar antigen in motile bacterium is named as H
(Hauch) antigen.
 Flagellum … Cont’d

• Each flagellum has 3 distinct parts

a) Filament or shaft
– It is external to the cell surface twisted helically and
connected to the hook at the cell surface.
b) Hook – connect the basal body with the filament
c) Basal body – embedded in cell envelope and consists of a
small, central rod surrounded by a series of ring
– L-ring – attach to Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) membrane
– P-ring – attach to peptidoglycan
– S-ring – located in the periplasmic space above the plasma
membrane
– M-ring – attach to cytoplasmic membrane
Fig. Bacterial flagellar structure
 Flagellum … Cont’d
-The presence of fllagella in bacterial cell is detected by
– Hanging drop preparation
– Swarming phenomenon on surface of plate agar
– Motility in semi solid media

Flagellar arrangements
1. Atrichous: Bacteria with no flagellum: Eg. All cocci
2. Monotrichous: Bacteria with single polar flagellum:
Eg. V.cholara
3. Lophotrichous: Bacteria with bunch of flagella at one pole:
Eg. Pseudomonas flouresense
4. Amphitrichous: Bacteria with flagella at both poles:
Eg. Alcaligenes faecales
5. Peritrichous: Bacteria with flagella all over their surface:
Eg. S.typhi
Fig. Different flagellar arrangements
• Flagella provides swimming movement for most motile
prokaryotic cells.
• The flagellar filament is rotated by a motor apparatus in the
plasma membrane allowing the cell to swim in fluid
environments.
• Spirochates moves by using a flagellum like structure called the
axial filament, which wraps around the spiral shaped cell to
produce an undulating motion.
• Non-motile (non flagellated) bacteria can move by flexing, and
spinning
 B. Pilli (Fimbriae)
• interchangeable terms used to designate short, hair-like
structures (finer filaments) on the surfaces of procaryotic
cells.
• are extruding from the cytoplasmic membrane
• are shorter and stiffer than flagella, and slightly smaller
in diameter.
• Like flagella, they are composed of protein called pilin
arranged in helical strand
Two functional types of pili may occur independently or together
on some cell.
I. Common pili
– almost always called fimbriae
– Help for attachment of bacteria to epithelial cell
– They considered as virulence factor in some species of
bacteria, because they allow pathogens to attach to
(colonize) tissues and to resist attack by phagocytic white
blood cells.

II. Sex pili or F pili

– occur less commonly
– appear to be specifically involved in bacterial conjugation,
i.e transfer of genetic material (DNA) from one bacterium
to another.
 C. Bacterial spores
• Under conditions of limited supply of nutrition, vegetative forms of
certain bacteria especially gram-positive bacilli and actinomycets
form highly resistant and dehydrated forms, which are called
endospores.
• These endospors are capable of survival under adverse
conditions such as heat, drying, freezing, radiation, and actions of
toxic chemicals.
• Spores are usually smooth walled and avoid, in some species it is
spherical.
• It does not take up ordinary stains
• It looks like areas of high refractivity under light microscope
• Spores may have different arrangements in the bacteria , some
bacteria may have spores at the end (terminal) ,some near the
end (sub terminal),some at the center (central )
Fig. Different arrangements of
spores in the bacteria
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