Construction Technology III

Year 2, Semester I
CE 20603

Eng.M.W.P. Chathurika

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Construction Technology III
Road Construction
Lesson :02

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 The Content

1. Design Elements of a Road

2. Road Construction works

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 Geometric Design of Road
Design Speed

• The design speed can be defined as the highest continuous speed, at which vehicles can
travel with safety, provided that weather conditions are favorable and traffic volumes are
low, and the vehicle speeds are governed by the design features of the road.
• The primary factors that influence the design speed of a road are, the type of road facility
and the terrain through which the road will pass.
• The secondary factors to be considered are the traffic characteristics, speed capabilities
of vehicles.

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 Geometric Design of Road
Sight Distance:

The ability of the drivers to see the road ahead is probably the most important feature in
the safe and efficient operation of a road.
The sight distance can be defined as the length of carriageway ahead that is visible to the
driver.
There are two forms of sight distance;
1. Stopping sight distance
2. Passing sight distance

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 Geometric Design of Road
Stopping sight distance
• This is defined as the distance measured from the drivers eye.
• The safe stopping sight distance that should be provided must be sufficiently long to
enable a vehicle travelling at the design speed to stop before reaching an object on its
path.
• The calculation of the minimum distance required to stop the vehicles is based on the
evaluation of the driver’s perception and reaction times and the distance necessary to
stop the vehicle after the brakes have been applied.
Perception time is the time which elapses between the instant that the driver sees the
objection the carriageway and the instant, when his brain recognizes what he saw.
Reaction time is the time taken by the driver to think what action to take in a given situation,
calling for stopping the vehicle, it is the time required to take the decision to stop, and to
actuate the brake pedal.
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 Geometric Design of Road

Perception – reaction distance,

dpr = t.v = 0.278t.V
v = initial speed, m/s
V = initial speed, km/h
t = perception – reaction time, s
A value ranging from 1.5 secs to 2.5 secs is used for the perception-reaction time.
The Braking distance needed by a vehicle to stop on a level road, after the breaks have been
applied can be estimated by using the principle, that the change in kinetic energy is equal to
force multiplied by distance.

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 Geometric Design of Road
½ mv2 = Force x distance
½ mv2 = F x d
F=µR
F = µ mg
½ mv2 = µ mg x d
Stopping distance, d = v2/2µg = V2/ 254µ

g = acceleration due to gravity

v = initial speed m/s
V = initial speed km/h
d = breaking distance
µ = coefficient of friction

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 Geometric Design of Road
Passing Sight Distance (P.S.D)
This is the minimum distance required to make a normal passing strategy on a 2 lane road,
assuming that all drivers are operating their vehicles at the design speed except during the
passing strategy.
The assumptions made in the calculation of passing sight distance are:
1. The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed.
2. The overtaking vehicle is required to follow at the same speed until there is an
opportunity to overtake.
3. The driver of the overtaking vehicle requires a certain period of time to start the
overtaking strategy.
4. The overtaking vehicle accelerates during the passing strategy and its speed during the
occupancy of the off-side lane is 10 miles per hour higher than that of the overtaken
vehicle.

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 Geometric Design of Road
There are four components of passing sight distance as follows:
d1 = distance travelled during the time when the driver makes up his mind to overtake the
vehicle in front.
d2 = distance travelled while the overtaking vehicle occupies any part of the opposing lane.
d3 = distance between the passing vehicle and the first opposing vehicle at the end of the
strategy.
d4 = distance travelled by the opposing vehicle while the overtaking vehicle finishes its
overtaking strategy.

P.S.D = d1 + d2+ d3+ d4

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Geometric Design of Road

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 Geometric Design of Road

Horizontal Curve Vertical Curve Reverse Curve

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 Geometric Design of Road
Horizontal Curvature
Horizontal curvature design is a very important feature in the safe and efficient
movement of vehicles on a road.

• Improper design of road curvature will result in lowering of travel speeds, lowering of
road capacity and an increase in accidents.
• The maximum comfortable speed on a horizontal curve is mainly dependent on the
radius of the curve and the super elevation of the road surface.
• Horizontal curvature is provided by simple circular curves along with transition curves at
either end to connect up with the straights.
• A circular curve joining two road tangents can be described either by the radius of the
curve or by its degree of curvature.

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Geometric Design of Road

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 Geometric Design of Road
In Sri Lanka, a curve is defined by the radius of curvature.
PI- Point of Intersection
PC- Point of Curvature
PT- Point of Tangency
Δ – External Angle
D- Degree of Curvature
E- External Distance
M- Middle ordinate curve to chord distance
L- Length of curve
LC- Long chord length
T- Length of tangent
R- Radius of curve

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 Geometric Design of Road
Super elevation
• Any vehicle moving along a highway curve is subjected to an outward reactive force,
called the centrifugal force, which tends to make vehicle to overturn or slide
outwards from the centre of the road. In order to resist the outward acting
centrifugal force, it is the common practice to super elevate or slope the carriageway.
 

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 Geometric Design of Road
Indicate on a neat sketch the forces acting on a vehicle travelling along a super elevated
curved section of the highway by using standard notations. Write an expression for
the outward force and derive an expression for the speed of the vehicle with respect
to radius of the curve, super elevation and coefficient of friction.

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 Geometric Design of Road
Widening of Curves
 When the carriageway is to be widened on a curve, there are four main
considerations to be taken into account.
1.On simple circular curves, the total extra width should be applied to the inside
of the carriage.
2.When transition curves are provided on either side of circular curve, the
widening may be applied equally to the inside and outside of the curve, or it may
be applied wholly to the inside of the curve.
3.The extra width should be applied gradually and never abruptly, to ensure that
the entire carriageway is used.
4.The edges of the carriageway should from smooth and graceful curves.

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 Geometric Design of Road
Transition Curves
• As a vehicle enters or leaves a circular curve, the driver will gradually turn the steering
wheel from the normal position to achieve the necessary deflection. This gradual change of
direction will cause the vehicle to trace out its own transition curve from the tangent to the
circular curve.
• The transition path traced out in this way depends on the speed of the vehicle, radius of the
curve, the super elevation of the carriageway and the steering action of the motorist.
• The primary purpose of providing transition curves is to enable vehicles travelling at high
speeds to make the change from the tangent section to the curved section in a safe and
comfortable manner.
• The provision of transition curves minimizes the intrusion of vehicles onto the wrong lanes,
tends to encourage uniformity in speed and increase vehicle safety on the curved section.

 
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 Geometric Design of Road
 

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
The elements of cross-section are,

1. Carriageway consisting of traffic lanes

2. Median
3. Shoulders/ side walks
4. Camber
5. Side Drains

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Cross Section Elements of a Road

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Some typical cross –section of 2 lane road

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Some typical cross –section 4 lane roads

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Cross Section Elements of a Road

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Carriageway
The carriageway is that portion of the road which is exclusively provided for the passage of
vehicular traffic.
The carriageway consists of one or more traffic lanes, and the number of lanes provided
for a particular road depends on the volume and the nature of traffic that has to be
handled.
The width of a traffic lane varies from 8 to 12 feet (2.44 to 3.65m) and the higher lane
width of 12 feet (3.65m) is used for roads having high travel speed and a high percentage
of commercial vehicles in the traffic stream.

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Median

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Median
The functions performed by a median, or a central reservation are:
1. To separate opposing traffic streams
2. To prevent making of U-turns, and enhance safety of road users
3. To provide a storage lane for right turning vehicles at intersections
4. To provide a refuge for the pedestrians
5. To minimize headlight glare at night
It is desirable to have a center-median as wide as possible, but difficulties in acquisition of
land and the increase in construction costs tend to place limitations on the width of the
median. According to American Standards (AASHO), the minimum width should be 4 feet
(1.22m), going up to a desirable maximum of 60 feet (18.3m). The desirable median width
for Sri Lanka is about 10-15 feet (3.05 – 4.58m).

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Shoulder

The functions performed by a shoulder are:

1. To protect the road pavement
2. A vehicle meeting with an accident or broken down can be moved to the road shoulder
to prevent traffic congestion
3. To provide lateral clearance to enable vehicles to make use of the full width of
carriageway
4. To provide space for road signs to be erected
5. To provide space for underground services
6. To provide space for road maintenance operations
7. For the use of pedestrians

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Roadway can be described as the portion of the road generally used for traffic. Ie;
Carriageway and shoulder. In general a road can be described as a path for vehicles
and other types of traffic over which they may lawfully pass.

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Side-Walks

Sidewalks are provided on roads in urban areas for the use of pedestrians.
Sidewalks are considered as an integral part of city roads, but few are considered
necessary on rural areas.
The width of sidewalks depend on the volume of pedestrians and the function of
the road. The minimum width of sidewalk recommended is 6 feet ( 1.83 m), and
should be increased in accordance with the volume of pedestrian traffic.

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Camber

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Camber

The term camber is used in highway engineering to describe the cross-slopes of the
carriageway. The main object of providing road camber is to drain out the rain water and
protect the road pavement. Recommended camber for different types of road surface are
given in table.

Surface type slope

Cement concrete 1 in 40
Asphalt concrete 1 in 36
Bituminous 1 in 32
Gravel 1 in 30

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 Cross Section Elements of a Road
Drainage System
Servisibility of a road is greatly dependent upon the adequate of its drainage system.
Water standing on the carriageway is a danger to its users. Water seeping into the
pavement and subgrade leads to the development of soft spots which result in break up
of the surface, needing expensive repairs. Therefore a proper drainage design is an
essential part of economical road design and construction.

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 Road Structure

The surfacing, base and sub base are

called the pavement layers of the
road, and the bottom level of the sub
base is called the formation level.

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 Road Structure
Formation/ Sub-Grade

•This is the soil foundation which receives the traffic loads from the pavement. Actually
this is the natural ground in its final shape on which the road structure rests. If the
formation fails the performance of the entire road will be affected. Therefore the
formation should be able to resist the effects of traffic and weather.
•Proper preparation of sub-grade is very important to ensure satisfactory load resisting
formation. If formation is prepared in cutting where soil is quite acceptable, compaction is
not generally required. But, if formation is in filling proper compaction with machinery is
essential.
•Moisture control around the roadway is also an important consideration.

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•Ordinary soil is the best material for road formation. A good proportion of sand, clay and silt
is 70-85% sand, 10-20% clay and 5-10% silt.
•Any adverse change in moisture in the sub-grade will have detrimental effects on the
pavement and therefore moisture control is very important.
•Generally formations or sub-grades are on hard rock, soft rock, natural soil and on marshy
lands. The ideal proportion of sand, silt and clay is given above. If the natural soil does not
contain the required percentage of sand, clay and silt, then adjustments have to be made by
adding required proportions of sand, silt or clay.
•The completed subgrade should have sufficient bearing capacity.
•Generally soils having bearing capacity less than ½ Ton/sq.ft are considered to be unsuitable
for sub-grades.
•Some of unsuitable materials are highly organic clays, silts, peat and soils containing large
amounts of roots, grass and vegetation.
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Construction of Sub-grade

• The main objective is to obtain a soil foundation which is suitable under traffic loads and
weather actions.
• The first step involved in this is clearing of the road trace. This is removal and disposal of
trees, stumps, logs, grass, vegetable matter and other unsuitable materials. The next
operation is grubbing. This means removal and disposal of top soil and roots. This
should be done to a depth of at least 6 inches below the ground level.
• The road trace prepared as explained above should then be excavated if necessary.
Always excavation should be done to correct alignment, levels, slopes and cross sections
as shown in plans or as directed by the engineer. The excavation should cover the entire
platform width.
• All suitable excavated material should be used in constructing the roadway wherever
possible. All spoils should be deposited in specified areas where they do not cause any
inconvenience to traffic. 39
 Road Structure
In excavated sections the top of the subgrade on which the pavement is to be placed
should be compacted to a minimum depth of 6 inches to not less than 98% of the
maximum dry density obtained by standard proctor compaction test.

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Construction of Subgrade on fill
• When the subgrade elevation is higher than the existing ground level it should be filled
with approved material either from excavated sections and/or from approved borrow
areas. The actual work consists of furnishing, placing, compacting and shaping to lines,
levels and grades as shown in the plans.
• The filling and compaction should be done in layers of specified thickness.
• In swamps and water logged areas filling should be done after proper dewatering.
• Filling material should be free from impurities such as organic material, roots, rocks
etc. Large lumps of soil should be broken down after placing and before compaction.
Filling material should be placed in layers covering the entire width of the cross
section. The thickness of a layer is about 8 inches or as specified by the engineer.

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•Soil should be watered and compacted after placing in layers.
•The object of compacting soil is to improve its properties such as strength, liability to
settlement and resistance to weathering.
•Each layer should be watered to bring its moisture content close to the optimum
moisture content, and each layer should be compacted using appropriate compaction
equipment.
•Compaction should be done in longitudinal direction commencing from outer edge and
progressing towards the center.
•The completed subgrade should have the correct grade slope and camber.
•The subgrade should be well drained and protected against damage by public and
construction traffic.

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 Road Structure
Sub Base
The sub base is the layer immediately below the base, and in a simple sense it may be
considered as an extension of the base. Once the formation or sub grade is completed the
pavement is laid on it. The sub-base is constructed on the formation. Sub base is not
required for all road structures. It is necessary for roads which are expected to cater for
heavy vehicles and for roads to be constructed on soft subgrades.

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Materials used for the Sub base

Rock spalls (broken rock) are the most common material used for sub base.
Generally 4 inch (100mm) size of rock spalls are suitable to construct a good sub
base. Larger sizes of rock spalls are required for sub bases on soft or unreliable
subgrades.
For a general purpose sub base stones passing through a 150mm diameter ring are
used. Stones used for sub-base should be hard, clean and durable. Usually they are
selected after laboratory tests.

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 Road Structure
Placing of the Sub base
Sub base should be laid as a single layer. If the depth of sub base is greater than
the size of stones available, either gravel or aggregates can be used to obtain the
required depth.
The stones should be hand packed on the prepared subgrade so that all particles
are firmly seated and interlocking each other.
When packing the sub base larger stones should be placed at the outer edges and
along the center line of the road.
The broadest face of the stones should be kept downwards and greatest length
should be kept across the roadway. All voids on the top should be filled with chips.

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 Road Structure
Compaction of the Sub base
Three wheeled road rollers are used for compacting sub base. Rolling should commence at
the edges and progress towards the center.
The big stones at the edges should be fixed firmly by the roller. The roller should be moved
forward and backward along the edge until there is no movement of the stones when
rolling. Thereafter rolling could be directed towards the center in a similar manner.
Usually the roller should make at least 8 passes over the same surface. Once the rolling or
compaction is completed camber and grade should be checked.

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 Road Structure
Base
• In a road structure the base course is the layer immediately under the surfacing
or wearing surface.
• The base is subjected to heavy loadings whenever traffic movement occurs.
Therefore the base should be constructed to withstand the effects of heavy
loading.
• There are several methods of laying a base. The most common method is to lay
2 layers of 2 inch (50mm) nominal size aggregate of approved quality.
• Crushed metal is the most widely used material for the construction of roads in
Sri Lanka. The crushed metal used for this purpose should be hard, clean and
durable usually selected after laboratory testing.

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 Road Structure
Placing of the Base
• This is usually referred as spreading of metal. After compaction of the two layers of
metal, it should produce or yield 3-3.5 inches thick layer of base.
• The metal should be spread uniformly and evenly over the prepared sub base to the
required thickness. It is important to maintain the camber and the gradient of the
road while constructing the base.
Compaction of the Base
• The compaction of the base is done by smooth wheel rollers. Rolling is done either
with three wheel smooth rollers or vibratory rollers depending on the strength of the
metal and the type of loading on the road surface.
• Similar to the compaction of the sub base the rolling should commence at the edges
of the road with the roller moving forward and backward to lock the stones firmly at
the edges until the edges are fully compacted. The roller should gradually progress
inwards parallel to the center line of the road.
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 Road Structure
The Wearing Surface
The wearing surface is the top surface of a road structure. The wheels of the passing
vehicles come into contact with the wearing surface and hence the name. A good
surface dressing for a road is to spray the road surface with a thin layer of a suitable
material and covering it with chips and fine aggregate followed by light rolling.
The reasons for surfacing a road are as follows.
• To provide a dust free wearing surface over the base
• To prevent entry of water into the road structure
• To protect the road substructure by preventing the removal of materials used for the
base and sub base
• To provide a smooth riding surface
• To resist abrasions and wearing

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Macadam
The meaning of the word macadam is road surface made with successive layers of small
broken stones rolled in with some binding material. This term came into the use after a
Scottish engineer named John Lovden Mc Adam who introduced this type of road
construction.

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 Road Structure

Macadam Bases

There are several types of macadam bases used in road construction.

Different types of Macadam bases are;
 Dry bound macadam
 Water bound macadam
 Crusher run macadam
 Bituminous coated macadam

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 Road Structure
Dry bound macadam
1.5-2 inch nominal size aggregate is placed on sub base. After preliminary shaping and
compacting of this course, it is covered with a 1” layer of crushed rock well graded from
1 inch to dust. This fine material is then vibrated into the interstices of large size
aggregate using vibratory roller. The final compaction is by smooth wheeled roller.

Water bound macadam

1.5-2 inch nominal size aggregate is placed as in dry bound macadam. As each course is
laid, fines are rolled and watered into the surface to produce a dense material. Excessive
water should not be used because it unnecessarily softens the underlying courses of
road pavement structure. The size of fines should be less than ¾ inches. The compacted
thickness of the layer should be about 1.5 to 2 times the maximum size of aggregate.

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Crusher Run macadam
In this method, crusher run aggregate of maximum size 2 inches containing stones of all
sizes from 2 inches. It should be noted that in dry bound and water bound macadams 1.5-2
inch aggregate consists of stone sizes from to 2 inches was used, and fines used in later
courses are of size 1 inch and below.
But in this type all product of aggregate is used. The layer thickness may vary from 3 to 6
inches.

Bitumen
The wearing surface of roads is made of bituminous products. Bitumen is a by-product
obtained in the process of refining crude oil.

Bitumen, Tar and Asphalt are three terms often used when talking about wearing surfaces.
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Tar :-
This is a viscous liquid, black in colour with adhesive properties obtained by distructive
distillation of coal, wood or shale. Distructive distillation is a process in which the raw
materials are subjected to heat without access to air.

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Bitumen:-
This is a viscous liquid or solid material, black or dark brown in colour having adhesive
properties, this a by-product obtained in petroleum crude oil refining, or occurring as
natural asphalts.

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Asphalt:-
Black substance used for roofing and road surfacing. Asphalt concrete is a mixture of
aggregate, mineral fillers and bitumen.

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Penetration grade bitumen:-
This is obtained from crude petroleum under fractional distillation. Sometimes know
as asphaltic bitumen and classified according to the hardness indicated by the depth that
a specified needle is able to enter the sample when the standard penetration test is
performed.

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Cutback Bitumen:-
Asphaltic bitumen is dissolved in a liquid solvent which makes it suitable for direct
application on road surfaces. Once it is applied the solvent will be evaporated leaving the
bitumen on the surface.
The characteristics of cutback bitumen directly depends on the amount of solvent
present.
 Slow curing cutback
 Medium curing cutback
 Rapid curing cutback

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Bitumen Emulsion:-
An emulsion is a relatively stable suspension in liquid in a state of minute sub-division
dispersed throughout another liquid in which it is not soluble.
Bitumen emulsion is made of bitumen, emulsifier and water.

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Properties of Tar and Bitumen

• Both binders appear blackish in colour, when viewed in large masses, but makes a
brownish colour when viewed in thin films.
• Bitumen responds less rapidly than tar to small changes in temperature.
• Tar may be overheated and spoiled more easily than bitumen
• Tar tends to penetrate more easily than bitumen into open road surfaces.
• Bitumen is brittle at low temperatures because it has less carbon than tar.

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Bituminous surfacing

There are several functions expected from a road surfacing;

• Smooth and quite running surface for vehicles.
• Resistance to surface wear and deformation
• Resistance to skidding
• Transmitting applied wheel loads to underlying road structure.
• Protect the pavement and subgrade from detrimental effects of weather.

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Types of Bituminous surfacing
1. Rolled Asphalt
• It is a mortar of fine aggregate and penetration bitumen with an added quality of
course aggregate.
• It is hot mixed and hot laid
• It is one of the most durable surfacing
• A properly constructed rolled asphalt surfacing can be expected to have a maintenance
free period of 20 years.
• Mixtures with low coarse aggregate contents are used for wearing course, while the
mixtures with high coarse aggregate contents are used for base courses.
• Therefore choice for mixture to be used depends on the economic considerations, the
thickness of the layer, site conditions, traffic conditions, types of aggregates and binders
etc.

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Common types of rolled asphalt are;
Two course construction. Base course and wearing course.
Single course construction- Only wearing course without the base course.
Thin wearing course or “carpets”
These are usually laid on already existing surfaces from which all uneven and defective
wearing course have been removed.
Multiple-course construction
This is used when the total thickness exceeds 4 inches.
2. Coated macadam
They contain less fines and fillers. Coated macadam is pervious to water compared to
rolled asphalt.
This type of surfacing is good for all weather roads and tar roads with less traffic. Coated
macadam is manufactured at central plants and transported, laid and rolled as rolled
asphalt. 63
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3. Surface treatment or surface dressing
There are two types of surface treatment.
i. Seal coat
ii. Tack coat
For all surface treatments low viscosity bitumen (cut-back bitumen)/tar and fine
aggregates are used.

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Seal coat:-
Spraying a road surface with a thin layer of binding material followed by a cover of
chips/gravel/sand which is then lightly rolled is called seal coat. Generally bitumen is
applied in two coats. After applying the first coat, the surface is covered with chips or
gravel or river sand and rolled lightly. The second coat is applied on it and again blinded
with chips followed by rolling.

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There are two types of seal coat treatments;
1. Single Base Surface Treatment (SBST)
2. Double Base Surface Treatment (DBST)

Single Base Surface Treatment (SBST)

• This used as a first coat seal on a new pavement or as a resealed on an existing seals
surface.
• Emulsion coat is applied only once
• Normally used when required surface thickness is small
Procedure:
• It is constructed by spraying a uniformed single application of binder on a clean surface.
• Then it is followed by a cover of chips, gravel or coarse sand.
• This is immediately followed by two roller passes from pneumatic tired roller, to seats
the aggregate properly into place. 66
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Advantages:
• It is very cost effective than DBST
• It creates a waterproof barrier over the road surface
• Easy and quick application
• Emulsion not only bonds aggregates, but creates a water proof surface, fills small
cracks and reduce moisture infiltration.
• Will give 5-7 years life time

Disadvantages:
• Not suitable for severe cracking surface
• Cannot be allowed for heavy traffic

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Double Base Surface Treatment (DBST):
There are two coats of binder application.
Cut back or emulsion is used as a binder.

Procedure:
• It is applied by spraying uniform layer of binder on a cleaned surface.
• Then it is followed by a cover of chips, gravel or course sand and immediately rolled by
pneumatic tired roller.
• Once the first lift is completed, the same process is repeated using an aggregate not
less than ½ size of the first application.

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Advantages:
• It will gives 8-10 years lifetime.
• Can be successfully used on severely destroyed or cracked roads.
• Provide flexible surface.

Disadvantages:
• Properly trained workers are required.

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Tack coat:-
This is not really a complete surface treatment. It is given to the underside of a wearing
surface or some other courses before these layers are laid. The purpose of the tack coat
is to bind the previously laid layer to the superimposed layer.
One type of tack coat is called the prime or prime coat. In prime coat cut-back bitumen or
tar is applied at rate of 0.75 litres/sq.m and allowed to dry for 2 to 3 days. The required
surface dressing is then applied on it.

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Pavements

A highway pavement is a structure constructed with super imposed layers of selected and
processed materials whose main function is to distribute the wheel loads of passing
vehicles to the subgrade.
There are two types of pavements namely;
 Flexible pavements
 Rigid pavements

Most rigid pavements are made of concrete slabs. The design of flexible type of pavement
depends on the quality of subgrade, but the design of a rigid pavement is independent of
the quality of the subgrade. Flexible pavements are the most common type used in roads.

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Causes for structural failure in Highway pavements
1. Fatigue failure
When a wheel load traverses a flexible pavement, the latter is subjected to a transient deflection
and then recovery. However, after a large number of such elastic deformations and recovery,
the pavement losses its elasticity and fatigue failure sets in.

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2. Shear Failure
When any one of the pavement layers or the sub grade is not strong enough to take up
the stresses due to traffic loads shear failure occurs. High tire pressures induce high
stresses in the upper layer of the pavement but have relatively little differential effects at
greater depths. Therefore generally it is the tire pressures which control the quality of
materials used in the upper layers while the total applied load controls the depth of
pavement required to ensure that sub grade is not overstressed.

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3. Failure due to change in moisture content
This is one of the most common causes of pavement failure particularly in Sri Lanka. For a given
degree of compaction almost all soils decrease in strength with increasing moisture content.
Any pavement design should therefore take this effect into account, either by using the soil
strength measured when the soil is at the worst moisture content likely to arise, or by
providing adequate protection of the sub grade to ensure prevention of water entry.

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There are a number of other causes that may result in structural failure of a
highway pavement, such as settlements due to consolidation of sub grade
soils volume changes (expansion and shrinkage), in sub grade soils due to
changes in moisture content causing cracking of pavements.

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THANK YOU

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