Raw materials and quality parameters

• Starch: Starch is the main constituent of wheat flour and represents

about 65-75% of flour.
• The starch granules provide energy to the seed during germination. The
starch granule size ranges from 1-13micro meter.
• Depending upon the x-ray diffraction produced the starch may be either
A type (bigger size 14mm; 75%) or B type (smaller size; 4mm; 25%).
• The proportion and size of the granules are related to baking potential
of flour.
• It has been reported that large starch granules produce significantly
higher loaf value of bread than small granules.
• Damaged Starch: The extent of starch damage occurring during milling
plays an important role in the suitability of the flour for bakery products.
• The starch damage depends on the roller clearance, the type of wheat
(hard/soft), moisture level used for conditioning, the roller surface
(flutes/inch) etc. the optimum range for bread flours is 7-9%. The starch
damage affects the water absorption of the flour.
• Excessive starch damage results in sticky dough.
• Optimum damaged starch content facilitates adequate sugar production
during fermentation and helps in getting bread with a good loaf volume.
• Lipids Lipids are classified as polar and non-polar.
• Polar lipids interact with water and form aqueous phase, whereas non-polar
lipids do not interact with water and do not form aqueous phase.
• Polar lipids in wheat originate from cell membranes and are dominated by
phospholipids and glycol or galactolipids.
• Non-polar-lipids are represented by triglycerides, and they are liquid at room
temperature.
• Non-polar lipids can be extracted from wheat flour using chloroform. Polar
solvents ·such as methanol extract the polar lipids.
• Wheat flour-lipids constitute about 2% by weight of flour but make important
contribution to dough properties, baking behavior and bread staling.
• Functions of Shortenings (a) it reduces the toughness of dough:
• As gluten does not develop until the flour is in contact with water and mixing
action, the inclusion of fat tends to insulate the gluten forming proteins from the
water and consequently, a less tough dough results, which is rather more
extensible and ideally suited for cookie making. The greater the amount of fat, the
greater will be the insulating effect.
• Excessive mixing will breakdown the insulation and a tough dough will result again.
• (b) It improves dough for machining and sheeting by lubricating the gluten. (c)
Controls the flow of dough. ·
• (d) Gives shorter bite to the goods.
• (e) Enhances the product flavour and taste.
• Types: Butter: It has a specific flavour, which makes a significant contribution to
the acceptability.
• It has certain organoleptic attractions for the consumer.
• Ripened butter of extremely high flavour is widely used.
• However, the relative low-melting point of butter fat leads to occurrence of
greasiness in the products.
• This greasiness causes annoyance during handling and tends to smear packing
material.
• The butter also causes early development of rancidity and it is expensive as well.
• 
• Vanaspati Is universally used because these are economical as compared· to
animal fats.
• Butter, coconut oil, and palm kernel oil, all of which contain a high
proportion 0f short-chain fatty acids (for example, lauric acid in coconut oil),
have much lower shortening value, than domestic vegetable shortening such
as hydrogenated soybean or cottonseed oils,
• Therefore, hydrogenated soybean or cottonseed shortenings are widely
used.
• Coconut-oil is used in bakery industry as a spray fat, fillings and coatings,
Crude vegetable oils are not used directly in the bakery products because of
the presence of impurities.
• Margarine: Margarine has taken place of butter in most bakeries
today cause of its wide range of properties.
• The consistency of the fat portion can be adjusted to minimize the
greasiness normally found in baked goods containing butter, it can
also be blended with softer fats.
• The margarine may or may not be coloured and can be flavoured to
varying intensities. Lecithin and monoglycerides can also be included
in it.
• Lard: Its use is limited mainly to Western countries due to religious
factors. Refined lard with added antioxidants is generally used
• Yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) The quality of yeast also influence the
quality of bakery products.
• In India, two types of yeast - compressed and dry are available. Both the
yeasts have advantages as well as disadvantages.
• New type of yeast known as instant yeast has been developed in USA and
now over 60% of baking industries are using this yeast.
• It has several advantages over existing compressed or dry yeast, such as
• (a) activity equal to compressed yeast,
• (b) no refrigeration required during storage,
• (c) instant reactivation in a dough.
• Salt it is an essential ingredient in bakery and its functions cannot be duplicated by other
ingredients. The impurities in granulated salt commonly copper and iron result in hard
gluten network and increase the mixing time. Salt imparts the flavour, structure, checks the
yeast growth as well.
• Sugars: One of the important bakery ingredients. The primary function is to impart sweet
taste, aid in fermentation, texture development and flavour development.
• Sucrose: helps in colour development, texturizer, it also restricts the gluten formation by
competing with water, it also increases the spreading capacity of the bakery products, it
also increases the gelatinization temperature of the starch thereby increasing the
spreadability.
• Corn starch: Economical, Imparts browning, helps in fermentation, increases water
absorption capacity.
• Other Sweeteners: Honey, saccharin.
• Dough Improvers The quality of flour for use in bread making can also
be improved by using bleaching and maturing agents.
• Though in other countries flours are normally treated with improvers
depending on the end use; it is not being done in India.
• There are several improvers like potassium bromate, benzoyl
peroxide, ascorbic acid, chlorine, chlorine dioxide, azodicarbonamide
etc.
• However, in India, millers are permitted to use benzoyl peroxide (max
40 ppm) as a bleaching agent and ascorbic acid (max 200 ppm) and
potasium bromate (max 20 ppm—Now banned) as maturing agents.
• Oxidising Agents In the past and especially in the USA potassium bromate (KBrO3) was
used as oxidizer.
• It is the most effective substances of all the dough conditioners known. It gives the
dough good working up properties and the bread a fine, soft and regular crumb.
• And it has a slow reaction. After kneading and even after the final prove a portion of
the KBrO3 still not has reacted.
• Only during the baking is the bromate converted to bromide (KBr).
• This means that the potassium bromate is doing a part of its job during the
ovenspring.
• The most commonly used oxidizing agents include: Azodicarbonamide (fast acting),
potassium iodate (fast acting), Ascorbic acid (medium acting) and Potassium bromate
(slow acting).
• Reducing agents: L-cysteine hydrochloride it helps in breaking the
disulphide linkages which are vigourously formed by the addition of
oxidizing agents or over kneading,
• Preservatives Acetic acid, Sodium acetate, benzoic acid, sodium
benzoate, propionic acid, calcium and sodium propionate, potassium
sorbate.
• Milk products They enhance the water holding capacity, buffering
capacity of the dough; enhance the flavour development; strength
crumb structure; enhance the nutritional value.
Gluten
• When using wheat flours, gluten is formed by an elastic network of
proteins (glutenin and gliadin) when the flour is moistened and
manipulated.
• For the most part, only a batter or dough can contain gluten, not the
raw flour alone.
• function in baking and cooking?
• Volume
• Texture
• Appearance
• Gluten forms when two classes of water-insoluble proteins in wheat
flour (glutenin and gliadin) are hydrated with water and mixed.
• From this process, gluten bonds form and a firm, rubbery substance is
created providing strength and structure.
• The bonds that form between the glutenin and gliadin are called
disulfide bonds
The amount of gluten formation

• As mixing increases so does the strength of the dough.

• The amount of gluten formation is dependent on the application.
• Less gluten formation is desired in a tender cake, whereas high
amounts of gluten formation is needed for chewy artisan bread.
• When gluten bonds are formed, the protein then can form elastic films
in the dough, which provides structure and helps to trap gases,
assisting in leavening of products.
• When heated, the gluten proteins coagulate (solidifies), and a semi-
rigid structure forms providing texture to various wheat-based
products.
• Factors affecting gluten network:
• Variety of wheat: Soft wheat contains less protein (6-8%), less glutenin, smaller proteins, forms weaker gluten. Hard
wheat contains more protein (10-14%), more glutenin, larger proteins, forms stronger, more cohesive, elastic gluten.
• Amount of water: Hydration is essential for gluten development. Glutenin and gliadin absorb about twice their
weight in water (hydration). Less water results in less gluten development (reduces protein mobility), but too much
water also reduces gluten development by diluting the proteins so much that their interaction is restricted.
• Water hardness: Calcium and magnesium in hard water strengthen gluten.
• Water pH: The ideal pH for gluten development is 5-6. Above and below pH 5-6 reduces gluten strength producing
more extensible (easier to stretch) dough. Adding baking soda raises pH producing more cookie spread, and more
porous, tender crumb.
• Leavening: Expanding air bubbles strengthen gluten, increasing cohesiveness, and elasticity, producing higher volume
and finer crumb.
• Enzymes: Enzymes that break down proteins are naturally present in flour, but inactive when dry. Enzymes break
down gluten into smaller pieces so dough becomes softer and more extensible. The process known as autolyse
(resting dough for 15-30 minutes), allows time for enzymes to break down gluten to produce more extensible dough,
providing more volume and open crumb.
• Salt: Bread dough contains 1.5-2.0% salt by weight of flour. Salt slows
enzyme activity and rate of fermentation. Salt strengthens gluten,
producing bread with higher volume and finer crumb.
• Fat, oil, emulsifiers, and sugars tenderize dough. Fat and emulsifiers
coat proteins reducing hydration and gluten development (like oil
coating spaghetti). Shortening shortens gluten strands producing
more tender baked goods. Sugar competes for water reducing protein
hydration and gluten development.