CHAPTER THREE

Composition of Substances and

Solutions
 3.1. Formula Mass and Mole Concept

Many argue that modern chemical science

began when scientists started exploring the
quantitative as well as the qualitative aspects of
chemistry. For example, Dalton’s atomic theory
was an attempt to explain the results of
measurements that allowed him to calculate the
relative masses of elements combined in various
compounds.
 3.1.1. Formula Mass
the concept of average atomic masses, and the
use of chemical formulas to represent the
elemental makeup of substances. These ideas
can be extended to calculate the formula mass
of a substance by summing the average atomic
masses of all the atoms represented in the
substance’s formula
Formula Mass for Covalent Substances

For covalent substances, the formula represents

the numbers and types of atoms composing a
single molecule of the substance;
the formula mass may be correctly referred to as
a molecular mass. Consider chloroform (CHCl3)
a covalent compound once used as a surgical
anesthetic and now primarily used in the
production of tetrafluoroethylene
The average mass of a chloroform molecule, CHCl3, is 119.37 amu, which is the sum of the average atomic
masses of each of its constituent atoms. The model shows the molecular structure of chloroform
the molecular mass of an aspirin molecule, C9H8O4, is the sum of the atomic masses of nine
carbon atoms, eight hydrogen atoms, and four oxygen atoms, which amounts to 180.15 amu
Cont:
 Formula Mass for Ionic Compounds

The formula mass for an ionic compound is

calculated in the same way as the formula mass
for covalent compounds: by summing the
average atomic masses of all the atoms in the
compound’s formula
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As an example, consider sodium chloride, NaCl,
the chemical name for common table salt.
Sodium chloride is an ionic compound
composed of sodium cations, Na+ , and chloride
anions, Cl− , combined in a 1:1 ratio. The
formula mass for this compound is computed as
58.44 amu
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Example 3.2
Computing Formula Mass for an Ionic
Compound Aluminum sulfate, Al2(SO4)3, is an
ionic compound that is used in the manufacture
of paper and in various water purification
processes. What is the formula mass (amu) of
this compound?
Solution
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 3.1.2. The Mole Concept
The mole is an amount unit similar to familiar units like
pair, dozen, gross, etc. It provides a specific measure of
the number of atoms or molecules in a sample of
matter. One Latin connotation for the word “mole” is
“large mass” or “bulk,” which is consistent with its use
as the name for this unit. The mole provides a link
between an easily measured macroscopic property,
A mole of substance is that amount in which there are
6.02214076 X 1023 discrete entities (atoms or
molecules).
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Deriving Grams from Moles for an
Element
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 3.2. Determining empirical and molecular formulas

The previous section discussed the relationship

between the bulk mass of a substance and the
number of atoms or molecules it contains
(moles).
Given the chemical formula of the substance,
one may determine the amount of the substance
(moles) from its mass, and vice versa
 2.1. Percent Composition

The percent composition of this compound

could be represented as follows:
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 Determining Percent Composition from Molecular or
Empirical Formulas

Percent composition is also useful for evaluating the

relative abundance of a given element in different
compounds of known formulas. As one example,
consider the common nitrogencontaining fertilizers
ammonia (NH3), ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3), and
urea (CH4N2O)
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3.2.2. Determination of Empirical Formulas
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3.2.3. Determination of molecular formulas

Molecular mass, for example, is often derived

from the mass spectrum of the compound. Molar
mass can be measured by a number of
experimental methods. Molecular formulas are
derived by comparing the compound’s molecular
or molar mass to its empirical formula mass.
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 3.3. Molarity and Other Concentration Units

3.3.1. Molarity
solutions have previously been defined as homogeneous
mixtures, meaning that the composition of the mixture
(and therefore its properties) is uniform throughout its
entire volume. Solutions occur frequently in nature and
have also been implemented in many forms of
manmade technology. Here is an introduction to some
of the basic properties of solutions.
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A solute is a component of a solution that is typically
present at a much lower concentration than the solvent.
Solute concentrations are often described with
qualitative terms such as dilute (of relatively low
concentration) and concentrated (of relatively high
concentration). Concentrations may be quantitatively
assessed using a wide variety of measurement units,
each convenient for particular applications.
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3.3.2. Dilution of Solutions
Dilution is the process whereby the concentration of a
solution is lessened by the addition of solvent. For
example, a glass of iced tea becomes increasingly
diluted as the ice melts
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3.3.3.1. Mass Percentage
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3.3.3.2. Volume Percentage
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A mass-volume percent is a ratio of a solute’s mass to
the solution’s volume expressed as a percentage. The
specific units used for solute mass and solution volume
may vary, depending on the solution
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3.3.4. Parts per million (ppm) and Part per billion (ppb)
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• End chepter