Chapter-5 IFF/SSR

Introduction
Identification of friend or foe and Secondary surveillance radar systems

There are operational SSR that both civil and military airspace control authorities use
and IFF used by the military. Modern IFF is a cooperative two-channel system, with one
frequency used for the interrogating signals and another for the response. Modes of
operation exist for both civil and military aircraft use and for military aircraft exclusively.
However, there are weaknesses in the IFF system in conflict environments.
IFF systems can fail, can be jammed, can be damaged in combat or can be turned
off. The latter would occur in the case of operations being conducted under conditions of
radio silence, which are required in certain military situations such as when going into
combat or during covert operations with special forces involved. Military codes can be
broken or compromised by espionage.
Modes of propagations:
Passive (non-cooperative technology), active and free responses.
a) Passive (non-cooperative technology)

b) active

SSR/IFF is a radar
with active reply
c) free responses.
 IFF equipment, used with search radars, permits automatic
identification of targets before they are near enough to threaten the security
of a friendly craft. In addition to friendly identification, modern IFF systems
also provide other information such as type of craft, squadron, side
number, mission, and aircraft altitude.

IFF completes the identification process in three basic steps:

(1) challenge,
(2) reply, and
(3) recognition.
 IFF/SRS Operation
A ground-based transmitter, the interrogator, broadcasts a radio signal to the
aircraft. A transponder on the aircraft would receive and reply to this signal.
Interrogations used very specific types of signals (1030 and 1090 MHz). If a plane did
not respond correctly the system determined that the target was an enemy aircraft

System shares the same frequency bands as IFF

A sensor on the ground sends out an interrogation signal (1030 MHz) from a
rotating antenna to aircraft flying in its sector. Aircraft equipped with transponders
receive these interrogations and send back a reply (1090 MHz)
There are two primary types of interrogations
Mode – A: interrogations are used for plane identification information
Mode – C: interrogations are used for altitude information
 A characteristic of the secondary radar system is that echoes from the transmitted
interrogation will not enter the receiver, because the interrogator’s receiver is tuned to
1090 MHz, but the transmitter radiates at 1030 MHz.
A tuned circuit called a diplexer was used for decades to steer the 1030-MHz
transmitted energy to the antenna and to steer the received replies to the receiver. The
configuration limits the secondary radar system to being only a data-exchange device,
unable to detect echoes from weather, ground obstructions, or those aircraft not equipped
with operational trans ponders.
 If the “friendly” aircraft is fitted with a transponder (transmitting responder), then it
sends a strong signal back as an “echo”. An active also encoded response signal which is
returned to the radar set that is generated in the transponder.

This proved very useful for the military in seeing their own aircraft clearly. In this
response can be contained much more information, as a primary radar unit is able to acquire
(e.g. an Altitude, an identification code or also any technical problems on board such as a radio
contact loss ...).

Problems

ATCRBS uses a rotating antenna to continuously send out interrogations. An aircraft can be
interrogated up to 20 times per sweep. Each time, the transponder sends back a separate reply
causes interference and overload in the 1030/1090 MHz channels when interference occurs the
ground station receives garbled signals as traffic increases, the number of airplanes at a given
time within the antenna's interrogation beam will increase.
 Transponders
Mandated if aircraft flies above 10,000 ft or within 30 miles of a major airport Primary
Surveillance Radar (PSR) transmits radar energy detected by the aircraft by reflected radar
energy. Aircraft return is displayed on the ATC console at a range and bearing with aircraft
position.
The Secondary Surveillance Radar (SSR) transmits a series of interrogation pulses received
by the aircraft transponder. Transponder replies with a different series of pulses that gives
aircraft identifier and altitude PSR and SSR are synchronized, both returns will be displayed on
the ATC console
In the interrogator on the ground:

The secondary radar unit needs a synchronous pulse of the (analogous) primary
radar unit to the synchronization of the indication.
• The chosen mode is encoded in the Coder. (By the different modes different
questions can be defined to the airplane.)
• The transmitter modulates these impulses with the RF frequency. Because another
frequency than on the replay path is used on the interrogation path, an expensive
duplexer can be renounced.
• The antenna is usually mounted on the antenna of the primary radar unit and turns
synchronously to the deflection on the monitor therefore.
In the aircrafts transponder:
A receiving antenna and a transponder are in the airplane.
• The receiver amplifies and demodulates the interrogation pulses.
• The decoder decodes the question according to the desired information and
induces the coder to prepare the suitable answer.
• The coder encodes the answer.
• The transmitter amplifies the replay impulses and modulates these with the
RF reply-frequency.

Again in the interrogator on the ground:

The receiver amplifies and demodulates the replay pulses.

Jamming or interfering signals are filtered out as well.
From the information „Mode” and „Code” the decoder decodes the answer.
The monitor of the primary radar represents the additional interrogator information. Perhaps
additional numbers must be shown on an extra display.
 Although the response is like an echo, it differs from one in several significant
respects.
The strength of the response is independent of the intensity of the interrogating
signal, provided only that the interrogating signal exceeds a threshold value of intensity.
The response frequency is independent of the interrogation frequency, and in
practice is usually different from it.
The response signal pulse may differ from the interrogation signal in form. It may
even consist of more than one pulse, the duration and spacing of the pulses being
arbitrary. Finally, an unavoidable delay of a few microseconds’ duration is introduced
between the reception of the interrogating signal and the emission of the reply.
 What is the code?

For conventional SSR the choice of questions is very simple. The controller wants to know
the identity of the aircraft („Who are you?”). The Radar gives a 2 dimensional position fix of the
aircraft, but air traffic control is very much a 3 dimensional process, so „What height are you?”
completes the positional fix.

These different questions determine the MODE of operation. The aircrafts transponder reply
with a CODE.

The problem now is that we need to have full co-operation between the radar and the
transponder on the aircraft. Every parameter must be agreed. In the military environment this is
not difficult, for a given system the same manufacturer can make the radar and the transponder.
But to establish an international standard that works throughout the world, with radars and
transponders being made by various manufactures requires standardisation. The classical SSR
standard is called as the MK X - A („Mark ten A”) standard.
The interrogator transmitter transmits two 0.8µs pulses with a power between 21 dBW
and 27 dBW spaced according to the mode of interrogation in the main beam. The
ICAO pulse separations are listed.
Signal Characteristics.-The beacon may utilize any of the
characteristics of the interrogating signal to make its decision as to whether or not to
respond. In addition to adequate characteristics include
1. Frequency (or frequencies).
2. Number of pulses per interrogating signal.
3. Pulse spacing.
4. Pulse shape (including pulse duration).
5. Signal repetition frequency.
In practice, all of these have been used. The choice must depend on
circumstances.
A decoding device should not lead to an unintentional decrease of traffic capacity,
This implies that it should not introduce additional “dead” time into the system.
Otherwise the presence of numerous signals of extraneous origin, which do not form
the proper code pattern, will tend to paralyze the system for an appreciable fraction of
the time.
. Reply Coding Parameters - For reply coding, the characteristics of the return signal must
be arranged so as to convey information in a useful form. Let us consider these
characteristics.
1. Frequency of each pulse.
2. Number of pulses per reply.
3. Duration and shape of each pulse.
4. Spacing between pulses.
5. Relative amplitude of pulses.
These variables have almost all been used in existing systems. Because the reply
frequency is capable of practically infinite variation, its use as a coding parameter places
certain obvious requirements on the receiver used to detect it. The number of pulses per
reply has been from one to six. The duration of reply pulses has been varied over a
hundredfold range; it is capable of conveying much information. Pulse shape (other than
pulse width) has not been used; it requires careful design and somewhat elaborate
equipment. Pulse spacing is a widely used variable and an easy one to control in
transmission and reception. Relative amplitude is an inefficient parameter from a signal-
to-noise standpoint.
 Uplink-Formats
Mode
Distance between
Mode Description
P1 - P3
Military Civil

1   3 (±0.2) µs
Military Identification
Military mode 1 is used to support 32 military identification codes (although
4096 mode 1 codes could also be used). Normally, the 32 codes could be used
to indicate role / mission / type. However, this mode itself is not in common
use in a normal peacetime environment.

Military Identification
2   5 (±0.2) µs Military mode 2 provides 4096 ID codes for military use (as for mode A).
Normally used to identify an individual aircraft airframe.

Civil / Military Identification

3 A 8 (±0.2) µs
Provides 4096 ID codes for civil / military use. The commonly used mode

  B 17 (±0.2) µs not used

Civil, Pressure Altitude Extraction

  C 21 (±0.2) µs mode C is used to extract the pressure altitude mode C value (or true altitude
if below the transition altitude).

  D 25 (±0.2) µs not (never) used

 Modes of operation
• Military mode 1 is usually used to indicate role, mission or type of
aircraft.
• Mode 2 is usually used to indicate an individual aircraft airframe.
• Military mode 3 and civil mode A are the same interrogation mode
(hence often referred to as 3/A). It requests an identity used for air
traffic control purposes.
• The other essential information required by air traffic control is obtained
from the mode C interrogation, requesting the aircraft flight level. This
is derived from the aircraft pressure altimeter or the radar altimeter.
• The ground interrogator will change the interrogation modes made in a
regular way – this is usually referred to as the interlace pattern. Usually
civil SSR interrogators alternate mode A and C each interrogation– i.e.
an AC interlace. Military interrogators may include mode 1 or 2 e.g. a
1AC2AC interlace. (Some military interrogators may interchange
mode 1 and 2 each scan.)
 The Reply Message
The SSR down link format consists of a number of pulses, nominally 0.45 µs (±0.1 µs).
F1 and F2 are always present and separated by 20.3 µs (±0.1 µs) – they are often referred
to as a bracket or framing pair. Other pulse positions within this framing pair are spaced
by 1.45 µs and are used to convey the required reply information in answer to the specific
interrogation (e.g Mode A identity or Mode C flight level values). The pulses are
identified to give the bits of an octal code (ABCD). The X pulse at the centre of the reply
is not used. The three blank positions may not be occupied by pulses, otherwise some
decoders may reject the entire answer as interference.
 In the case of Mode A, the octal code (ABCD) is set by a control panel in the
cockpit. In the case of mode C, the flight level is encoded in a special way (by a special
form of Gray code known as Gillham code - this has the characteristic of only one bit
changing for each change in flight level).
Examples of different Codes

Code Modes Meaning

7700 3/A, B General air emergency

7600 3/A, B Loss of radio

4· frame 1, 2, 3/A, B Military emergency call

7500 3/A Hijacking

 The pulse numbers are binary weighted, so it is easy to determine the relationship
between pulses and the number they represent. The A digit, for example, looks like
this, with 1 representing a pulse, and 0 representing no pulse:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

A1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
A2 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
A4 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

The same pattern applies to digits (knobs) B, C, and D.

Pretty soon 64 squawk codes weren't enough, and a scheme evolved to place a pulse between each
of the original pulses. This gave us 8 X 8 X 8 X 8 = 4096, the system we have today. The C digit
nested into the A digit, likewise the D inter digitised with B. In the process the new X pulse
appeared and could have been used to differentiate between Squawk and Altitude replies, but it
wasn't. X has never been used for anything.
 Side Lobe Suppression
In secondary surveillance radar technology the side lobes of the antennae affect
particularly unfavourably. Transponders also can be interrogated over the side lobes and then
answer about these, too and a response telegram can be received also over the side lobes.

Such answers cannot be assigned obviously on the radar screen. They rather appear as
several targets in the same range but in different directions. In the extreme case an airplane can
be interrogated permanently during a turn of the antenna. Such a reply then appears on the PPI-
scope as a „ring around”.
There are two principles of Side Lobe Suppression (SLS)
Interrogation Path Side Lobe Suppression (ISLS), and
Reply Path Side Lobe Suppression (RSLS). The techniques for ISLS are very similar to those
for RSLS. A supplementary so called
Improved Interrogation Path Side Lobe Suppression (IISLS) method uses the techniques of
ISLS to reduce the influence of false replays caused by reflection.
 Principle of the interrogation path side lobe suppression
Classical SSR interrogators comprise of two transmitting antennas. One is a directional
antenna (main beam), the other is a more or less omni-directional antenna producing a ‘control
pattern’. The two interrogation pulses (P1 and P3) are sent out on the main beam.
This narrow beam of the rotating antenna head sends these pulses out in a narrow
beamwidth between 2° and 3° of azimuth (or the sum beam of a monopulse antenna).
However, a third pulse, called P2 is also sent out via the control pattern of an
isotropic radiator.
 Each interrogation starts with the P1 pulse. This is followed shortly afterwards by a P2 pulse
on the control pattern. An aircraft's transponder will always measure the relative signal strengths
of the two pulses and will only ever respond to interrogations where the P1 pulse is at least 9 dB
stronger than the P2 pulse.

The relative signal strengths

of the pulses

The following conditions arise:

The maximum amplitude of the P2 pulse is <9 dB below the amplitude of the P1 pulse. In this
way, targets are in the main beam and the transponder must reply therefore.
The maximum amplitude of the P2 pulse is higher than the amplitude of the P1 pulse. In this
way, transponders may not reply.
The maximum amplitude of the P2 pulse is smaller but not <9 db below the amplitude of the
P1 pulse. In this way, the transponder may replay then, however, must not.
 Reply Path Side Lobe Suppression (RSLS)

A second possibility of the side lobe suppression can be carried out on the replay
path. Reply path Side Lobe Suppression (RSLS) enables replies received in the
antenna side lobes to be rejected. (A lot of these replies are interferences, so called „
Fruit”.) In addition you need the following equipment to this:
• a second, identically constructed receiver channel, and
• a comparator.
The principle is the amplitude comparison again of two signals which are
received about different antenna characteristics here, too. All reply pulses are
received about the two antenna systems and fed in two identical receive channels.
Since the processing is same in the two channels, the difference measured by the
different antennae patterns remains unchanged.
Suppression of Unwanted Reflections (IISLS)

The amplitudes of both video signals are compared with each other about
comparator circuits and only the desired signal is reprocessed. This additional wiring
has the advantage that also larger demanded arguments can be adjusted in the
amplitudes as this 9 dB of the ISLS. This often is importantly to suppress the effects of
disturbing reflections of area objects near the SSR site.
 One way of reducing reflection is for the SSR interrogator to use
Improved Interrogator Side Lobe Suppression (IISLS).

In IISLS the P2 and the P1 pulse are radiated from the control beam (remember: in ISLS
only P2 is radiated). In this example, the real aircraft receives the P1-P2 pair from the control
directly, via the direct path. Hence the aircraft transponder suppresses (P1 = P2) and is
therefore disabled from replying to any interrogations for a certain period (35 µs).
Consequently, when the reflected interrogation arrives a little time later due the extra path
length via the reflecting object, the transponder does not reply and so no false target is
produced.
IISLS can be very effective at eliminating many reflections. But the main disadvantage of
IISLS is that it causes all aircraft within range of the control beam (typically up to 40 NM)
and outside of the main beam to be suppresses every interrogation, not just the ones that are in
the side lobes. In some busy interrogator environments, this reduction of transponder
availability to other interrogators is considered unacceptable.
 SSR design considerations
The data obtained from beacon/transponder/ replies differ somewhat from those
obtained from a radar echo. Replies from beacons, for one thing, convey more
information.
In the case of radar echo, the information obtained is entirely dependent upon the
characteristics of the radar set and target. The range of the echo is measured with a
precision characteristic of the timing circuits of the radar set. The azimuth is measured
with a precision characteristic of the azimuth-determining equipment of the radar.
Resolution in range depends upon the pulse duration; and resolution in azimuth depends
on the antenna characteristics and the frequency used.
The beacon reply may be treated like an echo by the interrogator, as far as range and
azimuth determination are concerned. If the beacon reply is coded, however, it conveys
information about the beacon. It may tell, for example, where the beacon is; in this case
coordinate information is transmitted. It may identify itself by conveying identifying
information. Finally, if the beacon system is properly designed and used, it may
communicate still other general information.
The Range Equation for secondary radar
All of the systems under consideration make use of two distinct propagation links: the
interrogation link and the response link. It is clear that the controlling equations will be those for
one-way transmission applied to the two links separately (as differentiated from the round-trip
formulas applicable to radar echoes).
Obviously, the reliable range of the system will be the lesser of the ranges computed for the
two links.
Consider an isotropic radiator emitting a total power watts. The power radiated in any
direction is P,/4~ watts per steradian. If Pt the radiator is replaced by an antenna with a gain
(over isotropic) of gt in the desired direction, the power radiated in that direction is Ptgt/4π. If a
receiving antenna with an effective cross section a is placed at a distance R from the transmitter,
it subtends a solid angle a/R2 steradians, so that the power intercepted by such an antenna is
Ptgta/4πR2 watts.
In order to achieve symmetry and greater generality, a is expressed in terms of the gain of the
receiving antenna gr.
 The range equation then becomes

The International Civil Air Organization (ICAO) regulations for the operation of secondary
radar require that the minimum interrogator power be used for the range of the secondary radar.
The aircraft transponder sensitivity limits are given as between -69 dBm and -77 dBm at the
antenna end of the cable leading to the transponder for a 90% probability of reply.
 The losses in the ground-to-air case (uplink) include the cable between the interrogator and its
antenna on the ground (gain in the region of 25 dB) and the one-way atmospheric loss. Note that
the losses in the cable between the transponder and antenna are included in the sensitivity figure.
The transponder antenna is quasi omnidirectional and the gain is assumed to be near 0 dB. On the
reply side the losses are the same.
In practice R is equal
 Reference
1. Beacons, Basic considerations, Part-I BY L. A. TUBNER AND A. ROBERTS.
2. Fundamentals of Ground Radar For Air Traffic Control Engineers and Technicians
Ronald Bouwman FAA.
3. Secondary Surveillance Radar, Michael C. Stevens.