B.Sc.

- Semester - VI
Physics (Paper- II)
Unit –I
Oscillators
Oscillator-
Oscillator is an electronic circuit that generates an
output signal without any input signal.
 It produces a periodic waveform on its output
with only the DC supply voltage as an input.
The output voltage can be either sinusoidal or
non-sinusoidal, depending on the type of
oscillator.
The function of an oscillator is similar to an
amplifier circuit in many respect.
Different types of oscillators produce various types
of outputs including sine waves, square waves,
triangular waves, and sawtooth waves.
• The main difference between oscillator and amplifier is
that in an amplifier circuit, the frequency, waveforms,
and magnitude of an ac power generated is controlled
by external source of ac signal whereas in an oscillator
circuit, the frequency, waveforms, and magnitude of an ac
power generated is controlled by circuit itself.
• Oscillator consist of an amplifier circuit and feedback
circuit. They are widely used in many electronic devices
such as radio, transmitter , TV , CRO, Radar etc.
Feedback Feedback is a technique where a some fraction
of the output of a system (amplifier)is fed back
(returned) and recombined with input. There are two
types of feedback amplifier.
(1) Positive feedback
• When the fraction of the output of a system (amplifier) is
fed back to the input in phase (0 0) is called Positive
feedback or regenerative feedback. In other wards
positive feedback is the
process when the output
is added to the input,
amplified again, and this
process continues.
(2) Negative feedback  When the fraction of the output of
a system (amplifier) is fed back to the input in out of
phase (1800) is called negative feedback. The use of
negative feedback reduces
the gain of amplifier.

Concept of feedback
• To explain the principle of feedback, a basic block
diagram is shown in figure.
Let, Vs = input signal voltage
Vo = output voltage without feedback
V’o = output voltage with feedback
Vf = βV’o, fraction of output voltage V’o
β = fraction or feedback factor
Vi = total input signal voltage
• The voltage gain of basic amplifier without feedback is
Av = Vo/Vs …..(1)
• Also, the voltage gain of amplifier with feedback is
Av = V’o/Vi …..(2)
• When feedback network is connected then the voltage
gain of basic amplifier with feedback is
Avf = V’o/Vs …..(3)
• The total input voltage is the resultant of input signal
voltage Vs and fraction of output voltage Vf to the input.
i.e. Vi = Vs + Vf
Vi = Vs + β.V’o …..(4)
Put this value in equation (2) we have, Av = V’o/(Vs + βV’o)
V’o = Av (Vs + βV’o)
 V’o - Av βV’o = Av Vs
V’o (1- β Av) = Av Vs
V’o/Vs =Av /(1- β Av) …..(5)
From equations (3) and (5),
we have Avf =Av /(1- β Av) …..(6)
• This gives the voltage gain of amplifier with
feedback, called as closed loop gain.
• The gain Av without feedback is known as open
loop gain.
• The term (Av .β ) is called feedback factor or loop
gain and β is a fraction.
Case1: For negative feed back, βAv is negative i.e.
βAv <1 The gain of amplifier with negative feed
back becomes
Avf =Av /(1+β Av) …..(7).
Negative feed back decreases the gain of amplifier.
i.e. Avf < Av
Case2: For positive feed back, βAv is positive i.e.
βAv > 1 The gain of amplifier with positive feed
back becomes
Avf =Av /(1-β Av) …..(8)
Positive feed back increases the gain of amplifier.
i.e. Avf > Av
Barkhausan Criterion of Oscillation
The gain of amplifier with positive feed back is
Avf = Av /(1- β Av)
If l β Av l =1
Then, Avf = Av / 0
Avf = Infinite
But Avf = V’o/Vs
Or Vs = V’o/Avf = V’o/ Infinite = 0
i.e. Vs = 0
• This means there is an output V’o without any input (Vs =
0) .
• Thus when l β Av l =1, the positive feedback amplifier can
work as an oscillator which supplies its own input. This is
known as Barkhausan Criterion.
There are two important and necessary conditions for oscillation.
1)The feedback must be positive.
2)The feedback factor (β.Av) must be unity.
• However, an oscillator in which the quantity (βAv) is exactly
unity, is not reliable in practice.
• In all practical feedback oscillators (β.Av) is slightly greater
than unity.
Classification of Oscillators –
The Oscillators can be classified into the following two main
categories:
1. Sinusoidal or harmonic Oscillators :
• The oscillators, which provide an output having a sine wave form,
are called sinusoidal or harmonic oscillators. Such oscillators can
provide output at frequencies ranging from 20 Hz to GHz.
• The sinusoidal oscillators are divided into the following types:
(i) Tuned Circuit Oscillators- These oscillators use a tuned-circuit
consisting of inductors (L) and capacitors (C) and are used to
generate high frequency signals. Thus they are also known as radio
frequency (RF) oscillators. (1 MHz to 500 MHz) Used in- radio,
television, Ex.- Hartley and Colpitts oscillators etc.
(ii) RC Oscillators- These oscillators use resistors and capacitors and
are used to generate low or audio-frequency signals. Thus they are
also known as audio-frequency (A.F) oscillators. Used in  musical
instruments, GPS units, & voice synthesis. Ex.- Phase-shift and wien-
bridge oscillators.
(iii) Crystal Oscillators- These oscillators use quartz crystals and are
used to generate highly stabilized output signal with frequencies up
to 10 MHz. It is used in computers, instrumentation, digital
systems, in phase-locked loop systems, modems, marine,
telecommunications, in sensors and also in disk drives. 
(iv) Negative-resistance Oscillators These oscillators use negative-
resistance characteristic of the devices such as tunnel
diodes. Ex.- A tuned diode oscillator
2. Non-Sinusoidal or Relaxation Oscillators : The oscillators, which
provide an output having a square, rectangular or saw
tooth waveform, are called non sinusoidal or relaxation
oscillators. Such oscillators can provide output at
frequencies ranging from zero to 20MHz.
USES OF OSCILLATOR IN VARIOUS FIELDS –
Some common applications of oscillators include:
• Quartz watches (which uses a crystal oscillator)
• Used in various audio systems and video systems
• Used in various radio, TV, and other communication devices
• Used in computers, metal detectors, stun guns, inverters,
ultrasonic and radio frequency applications.
• Used to generate clock pulses for microprocessors
and micro-controllers
• Used in alarms and buzzes
• Used to operate decorative lights (e.g. dancing
lights)
Physical consideration of tuned circuits-
• Feedback circuit in oscillator consists of two reactive
elements namely inductor (L) and capacitor(C) connected
in parallel to each other . Such circuit is also called as LC
circuit or Tank circuit.
• The inductor stores the energy in its magnetic field
whenever current passes through it. The capacitor also
stores the energy in its electric field whenever the voltage
is applied across it.
Action of tank circuit –
•
Suppose the capacitor C is initially fully
charged from DC source.
• Now the capacitor gets discharges through
the inductor L (coil).
• Conventional current flows through L and sets up magnetic field
around the coil .
• Thus the energy is stored in magnetic field by electric field.
• In other words electrostatic energy is converted in to
electromagnetic energy.
• By Lenz’s law, the counter e. m. f. by an inductor sends the current
in same direction which charges the capacitor with opposite
polarity.
• This means electromagnetic energy is converted in to
electrostatic energy.
• Thus charging and discharging of capacitor
results in an alternating current.
• As a result of this, the energy is alternately

1
stored in the electric field of capacitor and the
magnetic field of the coil.

f
• This interchange of energy between capacitor
and coil continues to be repeated and produces

2 LC
electrical oscillations in LC circuit whose
frequency is given by
1
f 
2 LC
Phase shift oscillator-
• The phase shift oscillator consist of common emitter amplifier
and RC network consisting three RC sections. Such oscillators
that use RC feedback network are called Phase shift oscillator.
• Basically the RC network
is a filter which produces
a phase shift in between 0°
and 90° depending on the
frequency of the signal used.
• Usually three filters are used
in cascade with each filter
producing a phase shift of 60°
at the required frequency so
that total phase shift of
exactly 180 0.
• The R7 is the load resistor and R6 is the collector-
base resistor which provides DC stabilization of
operating point.
• The ladder network consisting three identical RC
sections is connected between the input (base) and
the output(collector) of CE amplifier. This feedback
network produces a phase shift of 1800.
• The additional phase difference of 1800 is provided
by a common Emitter amplifier so that the total
phase shift will be 3600.
• Thus the fraction of output signal is fed back to the
input of amplifier in phase (3600 or 00 )through a RC
feedback circuit and the circuit acts as an oscillator.
• If all the resistors, R and the capacitors, C in the phase
shift network are equal in value, then the frequency of
oscillations produced by the oscillator is given as:
1
f r  2RC 6
• The single transistor Phase Shift Oscillators are suitable for
only low Frequency operation.
Drawbacks
1. The frequency of oscillations can not be changed easily.
2. The output is small due to smaller feedback.
3. The Frequency stability is not so Good.
4. It requires high Vcc. For large feedback.
Hartley oscillator
• In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the
collector and the base of a transistor amplifier. As far as the oscillatory
voltage is concerned, the emitter is connected to a tapping point on the
tuned circuit coil.
• The feedback part of the tuned
LC tank circuit is taken from the
centre tap of the inductor coils
in series which are in parallel
with a variable capacitor, C as
shown in figure.
• The Hartley circuit is often
referred to as a split-inductance
oscillator because coil L is centre
-tapped. In effect, inductance L
acts like two separate coils
• Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC
bias for the transistor in the normal manner while the
capacitors C1 and C2 act as DC-blocking capacitors.
• The resistor R3 provides dc load for the collector. The
resistor RE is the emitter resistor which is meant for
thermal stability and CE acts as a bypass capacitor.
Working-
• When the supply voltage Vcc is given, a transient
current is produced in the LC Tank circuit and
electrical oscillation are produced. This produces ac
voltage across L1 and L2.
• As the centre tap of L is grounded, there is phase
difference of 1800 between voltage across L1 and L2.
• The voltage across L2 is fed back to the input (base) of transistor and voltage
across L1 is the output voltage. The additional phase difference of 180 0 is
provided by a common emitter amplifier so that the total phase shift will be
3600.
• Thus the fraction of output signal is fed back to the input of amplifier in phase
(3600) through a tank circuit. In this Hartley Oscillator circuit, the DC Collector
current flows through part of the coil and for this reason the circuit is said to be
“Series-fed” with the frequency of oscillation of the Hartley Oscillator being
given as. f = 1 /2π (LC)1/2 , Where L= L1 + L2
• The frequency of oscillations can be adjusted by varying the “tuning” capacitor,
C or by varying the position of the iron-dust core inside the coil (inductive
tuning).
Advantages:
1. The frequency of oscillations can be varied easily by using variable
capacitor.
2. The Hartley Oscillator produces an output amplitude which is
constant over the entire frequency range.
3. The Hartley Oscillator may be used as local oscillator in radio
receiver to provide RF output.
Colpitts oscillator
• In many ways, the Colpitts oscillator is similar to that of the Hartley
Oscillator.
• Just like the Hartley oscillator, the tuned tank circuit consists of an LC
network connected between the collector and the base of a single stage
transistor amplifier producing a sinusoidal output waveform.
• The basic configuration of the
Colpitts Oscillator resembles
that of the Hartley Oscillator
but the difference is that it
uses a capacitive voltage divider
network as its feedback source.
• The two capacitors C1 and C2
are placed across a single common
inductor L.
• The C1, C2 and L form the tuned
tank circuit with the condition for
oscillations XC1 + XC2 = XL.
• The advantage of this type of capacitive circuit configuration is
that with less self and mutual inductance within the tank circuit,
frequency stability of the oscillator is improved along with a
more simple design.
Working-
• The function of different components are very similar to that
of Hartley Oscillator.
• Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual stabilizing DC bias for
the transistor in the normal manner while the additional
capacitors Cin & Cout act as a DC- blocking bypass capacitors.
• A radio-frequency choke (RFC) is used in the collector circuit
to provide a high reactance at the frequency of oscillation.
• The emitter terminal of the transistor is effectively
connected to the junction of the two capacitors, C1and C2
which are connected in series and act as a simple voltage
divider.
• When the power supply is firstly applied, capacitors C1 and C2
charge up and then discharge through the coil L.
• The oscillations across the capacitors are applied to the base-
emitter junction and appear in the amplified at the collector output.
• The required phase shift is obtained in a similar manner to that in
the Hartley oscillator circuit (1800 of tank circuit and 1800 of CE
amplifier). Thus the positive feedback is obtained.
• The frequency of oscillations for a Colpitts oscillator is determined
by f = 1 /2π (LC)1/2
• Where C is the equivalent capacitance of C1 and C2 = C1.C 2
C1  C 2
Advantages: 1. The can be used in commercial signal generators for
producing frequencies above 1MHz.
2. It can be used as local oscillator in radio/TV receiver to provide RF
output.
3. It can be used in high frequency induction heaters.
END