WELCOME STUDENTS

CHAPTER- 7 EVOLUTION
CLASS XII
 • A QUOTE FROM A GENETICIST AND EVOLUTIONIST

“NOTHING IN
BIOLOGY MAKES
SENSE EXCEPT
IN THE LIGHT OF
EVOLUTION.”

THEODOSIUS DOBZHANSKY
 WHAT IS EVOLUTION?

In the broadest sense, evolution is merely

a change.
It is important to note that biological
evolution refers to populations and not
to individuals and that the changes must
be passed on to the next generation.
Evolution can be precisely defined as any
change in the frequency of alleles within a
gene pool from one generation to the next.
 WHAT CAME BEFORE
EVOLUTION?
Evolution deals with a wide range of
phenomena: from the emergence of major
lineages, to mass extinctions, to the
evolution of antibiotic resistant bacteria in
hospitals today.
However, within the field of evolutionary
biology, the origin of life is of special
interest because it addresses the
fundamental question of where we all
living things came from.
 ORIGIN OF LIFE
When did life originate?

 Life arose on Earth about 3.5 billion

years ago.
 The evidence for origin of life comes
from microfossils found in ancient
rocks in South Africa and Australia
called stromatolites.
 EVIDENCE OF FIRST LIFE

Stromatolites are produced by microbes (mainly

photosynthesizing cyanobacteria) that form thin
microbial films which trap mud; over time, layers
of these mud/microbe mats can build up into a
layered rock structure.
 ORIGIN OF LIFE - A Historical
Perspective
There have been number of theories given from
time to time on the origin of life. Some of these
theories are:
 Special Creation – Propounded by Father
Suarez. It attributes the origin of life to a
supernatural event.
 Spontaneous Generation – According to early
Greek philosophers like Empedocles, Thales,
Anaximander, Aristotle, Plato life arose
spontaneously from lifeless matter –
(abiogenesis)
 ORIGIN OF LIFE - A Historical
Perspective
 Theory of Catastrophism : Put forward by
Cuvier and a similar Mechanistic theory by
Haeckel holds that Earth underwent number of
catastrophes and new life arose from the
inorganic matter left after devastation.
 Extraterrestrial or cosmic origin : The
advocates of this theory Helmholtz, Richter,
Arrhenius held that spores or seeds (sperm)
infected the barren Earth. This concept is also
known as Cosmozoan theory or Panspermia.
 ORIGIN OF LIFE
The most accepted hypothesis regarding origin of
life is by Oparin and Haldane.
Alexander I Oparin, a Russian biochemist and J.B.S.
Haldane, a British scientist, put forward a hypothesis
that first living thing evolved abiogenetically.
This abiogenic origin or chemical evolution of life is
described in ‘Origin of Life’, a book authored by
Oparin.
Oparin’s hypothesis also known as primary
abiogenesis opines that in the beginning, Earth had
reducing atmosphere as free oxygen was unavailable
and hydrogen was in ample amount.
 OPARIN’S THEORY
In a reducing atmosphere, it takes little
energy to form the carbon-rich molecules
from which life evolved.
Thus the early atmosphere consisted of H2O
vapors, H2, CH4, NH3 and methane being the
first organic compound formed.
As Earth cooled, water vapor condensed and
fell as rain which formed primitive ocean.
Rain water washed away minerals into the
ocean termed as hot dilute soup by Haldane.
 OPARIN’S THEORY

The chemical present in the ocean reacted

with each other as temperature was still
quite high and energy was being supplied
by UV Rays, Cosmic rays and lightning.
Small, nitrogenous bases etc. were formed
in the primitive ocean.
These precursor molecules then
polymerized resulting in appearance of
proteins, polysaccharides and nucleic acids.
 OPARIN’S THEORY
The first step in the evolution of cellular
organization in the primeval ocean ‘soups’ were
coacervates.
Coacervates had several remarkably cell-like
properties :
- Coacervates formed an outer boundary
that had a bilayer resembling a biological
membrane.
- Coacervates grew by accumulating more
sub-unit molecules from surrounding ocean.
- Coacervates divided by budding.
 OPARIN’S THEORY
Such coacervate like structures have been
experimentally formed by Sydney Fox who
termed them as microspheres.
With the origin of nucleic acids, a means
occurred to transfer information from parent
micro drop to off-spring and life began.
Certain scientists believe that nucleic acids
originated earlier than proteins.
Since RNA can act as enzyme, it may have
formed earlier and catalyzed the synthesis of
proteins.
 OPARIN’S THEORY
The earliest cells must have been prokaryotes
which were chemoheterotrophic and anaerobic.
First cells are termed as Eobiont or protovirus or
progenote which originated between 3.8-3.9 billion
years ago.
Cyanobacteria arose about 3.3-3.5 billion years ago
and led to Oxygen Revolution.
The emergence of photosynthesis was a turning point
because the process changed the atmosphere of the
Earth from reducing to oxidizing and hence initiated
evolution of life towards its diversities.
Eukaryotes arose 1.6 billion years ago.
Simple Molecule
OPARIN’S
THEORY

Complex Molecule

Molecular Aggregates
Formed Coacervates

Polymer
 EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE

Experimental evidence for abiogenic

molecular evolution of life was provided by
Harold C. Urey, an astronomer who asked
his student Stanley L. Miller, a
biochemist to perform a Simulation
Experiment.
Miller devised a Spark discharge
apparatus in which he sealed CH4, NH3, H2
and H2O vapour in a spark chamber.
 SPARK DISCHARGE APPARATUS

(-) Tungsten
Electrodes
(+) Direction of Water
Vapour Circulation

To Vacuum
Pump

Gases (primitive
Condenser atmosphere)

Trap
Boiling Water
(primitive ocean)
Condensed Water
(containing organic
compounds) Heat
 MILLER’S EXPERIMENT – An
Important Evidence in Favour of
Oparin’s Theory
In the Spark Discharge Apparatus, electric
discharge created by Tungsten electrodes at
high voltage simulated the effect of lightning
and UV rays.
After eighteen days, some amino-acids like
glycine, alanine, aspartic acid were formed
along with few organic acids.
This experiment thus gave a concrete proof
that similar reactions must have occurred on
the primitive earth.
 EVOLUTION OF LIFE FORMS
Complex biodiversity of today evolved from
single celled organisms.
This view is however opposite to the
conventional religious literature which
believes that diversity is the same since its
creation.
This view was challenged by Charles Darwin
on the basis of observations made during a
sea voyage in a ship H. M. S. Beagle.
He found that existing life forms share
similarities among themselves and also with
extinct organisms.
 Charles Robert Darwin
(1809-1882)

Journey of the Beagle

 DARWIN’S THEORY
OF NATURAL SELECTION
Charles Darwin proposed and provided
scientific evidence that all species of life
have evolved over time from common
ancestors through the process of natural
selection.
His 1859 book ‘On the Origin of Species by
means of Natural Selection’ established
evolution by common descent.
At the same time similar ideas were put forth
by Alfred Russell Wallace.
 DARWIN’S THEORY

Darwin was greatly inspired by ‘An Essay on

Population’ by Thomas Malthus.
According to this essay populations increase
in geometric progression and means of
subsistence increase in arithmetic
progression.
Darwin observed Artificial Selection and
found that number of varieties of crops and
useful animals have been produced by
extensive conscious human efforts.
 DARWIN’S THEORY
Darwin’s theory can be summarized as:
Reproductive ability of Limited environmental
population to increase in resources
number

Struggle for existence Hereditary Variations

Natural selection Change in the

(survival of the fittest) environment

EVOLUTION
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
The geologic time scale is a chronologic
scheme to describe the timing and
relationships between events that have
occurred during the history of Earth.
The complete history of earth is divided into
eras.
Eras are divided into periods and periods into
epochs.
Each era started with a revolution with were
large scale geologic upheavals during which
several species became extinct.
 HOW DO WE KNOW THAT EVOLUTION HAS
OCCURRED?

The evidence for evolution has primarily come

from five sources:
The fossil records
Comparative anatomy
Comparative embryology
Comparative physiology and biochemistry
The geographic distribution of related
species
 EVIDENCE FROM FOSSIL RECORD

It is the most direct evidence of

macroevolution.
macroevolution
Fossils are created when organisms become
buried in sediment, the calcium in bone and
other hard tissue is mineralized, and the
sediment is eventually converted to rock.
By dating the rocks in which fossils occur,
scientists can get a very accurate idea of the
fossils’ age.
There are different ways to calculate the age
of fossils.
 FOSSIL
DATING
The best-known absolute
dating technique is
carbon-14 dating.
All organisms have a fixed
ratio of C-12 and C-14.
After death C-14 decays
and its amount decreases.
The half-life of carbon-
14 is only 5730 years, so
the method cannot be
used for materials older
than about 70,000 years.
 EVIDENCE FROM FOSSIL RECORD

Through fossil record, the phylogeny of many

organisms can be studied, like horse,
elephant, man.
The fossil record reveals a rich diversity of
complex animal forms that lived on Earth.
Several transitional forms have been
discovered through fossils (e.g.
Archeopteryx) through which the course of
evolution can be studied.
By comparing fossils with present animals,
the changes can be observed.
 FOSSILS – RELICS FROM THE
PAST

AMMONITE
CYCADOPHYTE
TRILOBITE

DRAGON-FLY DINOSAUR
 LATIMERIA – A LIVING FOSSIL

Coelacanths (lobe finned fish) are well represented in

the fossil records from 390m.y.a to about 70m.y.a.
For many years, scientists thought that the
coelacanths had become extinct, by chance Latimeria
was caught in the Indian Ocean off the coast of South
Africa.
It has not changed for millions of years.
 EVIDENCE FROM ANATOMY
The anatomical similarities among the species
belonging to the same taxonomic categories
provide evidence for descent with
modification.
Richard Owen introduced the term homology.
Through homology it is evident that all the
vertebrates have the same pattern of bones,
muscles, nerves, blood circulation and organs,
the pattern becoming gradually more complex
as one moves from fishes to mammals.
 EVIDENCE FROM ANATOMY
Ulna

Radius

Humerus

In all tetrapods, the forelimbs have the same basic pattern –
humerus, radius, ulna, metacarpals and phalanges.
However these animals perform different functions with their
forelimbs due to adaptations to different needs.
Homology leads to divergent evolution indicating common
ancestry.
 HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS

Thorn

Tendril

BOUGAINVILLEA CUCURBITA

Thorns of Bougainvillea and tendrils of

Cucurbita are modified axillary buds but
have different functions.
 EVIDENCE FROM ANATOMY
Analogous organs are similar in function but
are anatomically different and unrelated e.g.
Wings of birds, insects.
Convergent evolution - Similar adaptation by
unrelated groups through modification or
evolution of different parts for e.g. eye of an
octopus and eye of mammal are analogous as
these differ in retinal position.
Analogy leads to convergent evolution due
similar selection pressures acting on
unrelated organisms.
 ANALOGOUS ORGANS
Same selection pressures

Different skeletal structures

Wing of an insect, pterodactyl, bird and bat

 EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYOLOGY
In many cases, an organism’s evolutionary
history unfolds during its development, with
the embryo exhibiting characteristics of the
embryos of its ancestors.
It was Karl von Baer who first discovered the
embryological similarities among all
vertebrates & propounded Baer’s Law.
Ernst Haeckel modified Baer’s Law in the
light of evolution.
 EVIDENCE FROM EMBRYOLOGY

Haeckel’s Biogenetic law or Recapitulation

theory states that: ‘Ontogeny Recapitulates
Phylogeny’ i.e. the embryonic development
repeats evolutionary history.
During development of heart of bird or mammal,
it is initially 2-chambered, then 3-chambered
and finally 4-chambered.
Birds have evolved from toothed ancestors
(reptiles). Adult birds are toothless but the
embryo has tooth buds.
Embryos of all vertebrates have similar
patterns showing common ancestry.
 EVIDENCE FROM BIOGEOGRAPHY

Biogeography is the study of the distributions of

organisms in space and time.
time
Darwin's travels during the voyage of the Beagle
allowed him to see the similarities and differences in
organisms in very diverse geographic areas.
He noticed some important patterns in the diversity
and distribution of species.
Alfred Russell Wallace noticed that different
regions of the world had congruent patterns of
endemic species and he drew up six biogeographic
realms.
 BIOGEOGRAPHICAL REALMS

NEARCTIC
PALAEARCTIC

ORIENTAL

NEOTROPICAL
ETHIOPIAN
AUSTRALIAN
 EVIDENCE FROM BIOGEOGRAPHY

These evidences favour the concept of

pangea.
Pangea was a common land mass in Paleozoic
and Mesozoic era which broke and drifted
apart to form continents.
That is the reason behind some similar
species found in widely separated areas. E.g.
Opossums are found in Australia and South
America.
Change in environment led to adaptations and
hence speciation.
 EVIDENCE FROM
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
DNA structure is universal,
universal i.e., the same in all
organisms, composed of polymers of the same four
nucleotides: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine.
Protein structure is universal,
universal composed of polymers
made of the same 20 amino acids.
Genetic code is universal,
universal whereby DNA is
transcribed into RNA and then translated into
proteins, so that all organisms use the same codons
for determining amino acid sequence.
Because all of the basic biochemistry of genetic
information and protein synthesis is identical in all
organisms, they likely inherited it from a common
ancestry.
 EVIDENCE FROM MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Variations in specific molecules can indicate phylogeny.
The greater the similarity in a protein produced by two
species, the more recently they shared a common
ancestor.
Hemoglobin,
Hemoglobin a blood protein found in all vertebrates,
shows amino acid differences compared to humans in
of a variety of vertebrates-
 chimpanzee: 1,
 horse: 18,
 mouse: 16,
 reptile: 35,
 frog: 62,
 shark: 79
 EVIDENCE FROM
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

If we calibrate variation to time, the

hemoglobin amino acid differences correlate
to geological time based on fossil record.
Thus protein molecules can be used as a
molecular clock as biologists have discovered
the rate at which mutations occur in the DNA
coding for a protein.
Similar molecular clocks have been developed
for other proteins like cytochrome c,
myoglobin, histones etc.
 ADAPTIVE RADIATION

Adaptive radiation describes the rapid

speciation of a single or few species to fill
many ecological niches.
It is an evolutionary process driven by
natural selection, adaptation and mutation.
One of the best examples of adaptive radiation
is of Darwin’s finches on the Galapagos’ islands.
These islands are on the west coast of South
America and were visited by Darwin.
 ADAPTIVE RADIATION

The beaks of Darwin’s finches are adapted

to the variety of food types available on the
different islands in the Galapagos Islands.
13 different species evolved from a single
ancestor from South America.
The original ancestor was a seed eating
ground finch.
Similar radiation occurred among
marsupials of Australian region.
 ADAPTIVE RADIATION IN
GALAPAGOS FINCHES

Large Ground Finch

Warbler
Finch Vegetarian Tree
Finch

Seed eating Ground

Finches-Original ancestor

Cactus Ground
Finch
Woodpecker
Finch
 DARWIN’S FINCHES

Small Ground Finch Medium Ground Finch Large Ground Finch

Cactus Finch Woodpecker Finch Warbler Finch

ADAPTIVE RADIATION IN
AUSTRALIAN MARSUPIALS
 BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION
‘Evolutionary Biology or ‘Bioevolution’ was
suggested by Mayr as a branch of Life
Sciences.
The word evolution as explained by Darwin is
‘descent with modification’ i.e. the
descendants are more fit from their ancestors,
due to continuous variations.
All organisms descend with modifications from
common ancestors.
The chief agent of modification is the action
of natural selection on individual variation.
 Darwin’s deductive reasoning in arriving at
theory of evolution by natural selection is
given as "three facts and two deductions":
FACTS DEDUCTIONS

All organisms tend to increase in

geometric proportion

In spite of this tendency, the Thus there is a struggle for existence.

numbers of individuals of a given
species remain more or less
constant.
All organisms vary considerably.
Since there is a struggle for existence
and since not all organisms are alike,
more of those with favorable variations
will survive and produce more offspring
than those with unfavorable variations
(i.e. survival of the fittest).
 FITNESS
The concept of fitness is central to natural
selection.
Fitness is the end result of the ability to adapt and
get selected by nature.
The goal of all organisms is to live long enough to
produce reproductive offspring.
Individuals that can locate, harvest and utilize the
resources from their environment the most
efficiently, while minimizing the influence of limiting
factors acting upon them, will be the most
successful in continuing their genes to the next
generation.
BRANCHING
DESCENT
According to
Darwin, evolution
follows a
branching tree
pattern and is not
ladder- like as
opined earlier by
Greek
philosophers.
 DRAWBACKS OF DARWINISM
Darwinism was highly acclaimed but it could
not explain the mode of origin and
transmission of variations.
The source of variation was discovered by
Hugo de Vries who gave the Mutation
theory.
Mutation theory explains both progressive
and retrogressive variations.
This theory explains that few species arise
suddenly due to discontinuous variation.
 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
Darwinism was highly acclaimed but it could not
explain the mode of origin and transmission of
variations.
According to Darwin, evolution is a progressive series
of adaptive changes brought by natural selection.
The raw material for selection is genetic variation
among individuals within a species.
Natural selection chooses the best suited alleles.
Even though Mendel had talked of inheritable ‘factors’
influencing phenotype, Darwin either ignored these
observations or kept silent.
 MECHANISM OF EVOLUTION
The source of variation was discovered by
Hugo de Vries who gave the Mutation theory.
theory
Hugo de
Vries,
one of the
rediscoverer
of Mendelism.
Oenothera
lamarckiana
(Evening
Primrose), the
plant on which
de Vries
experimented.
 THE HARDY WEINBERG
PRINCIPLE
Genes within populations : The Hardy Weinberg
Principle – In a randomly mating population (Panmictic
population), evolution can be measured by Hardy-
Weinberg equilibrium.
G. H. Hardy, an English mathematician and
G. Weinberg, a German physician developed this
concept independently and published it in 1908.
According to this principle, in the absence of forces
that change gene frequencies, populations may have
any proportions of dominant and recessive traits and
the relative frequency of each gene allele tends to
remain constant generation after generation.
 In algebraic terms Hardy Weinberg equilibrium is
represented as an equation.
For a gene with two alternative alleles, called A
and a, the frequency of A can be expressed as p
and that of a as q.
Conventionally dominant allele is expressed as p
and recessive as q.
p + q = 1
Therefore (p + q)2 = p2 + 2pq + q2
Where p2 = homozygous dominants (AA)
2pq = heterozygous dominants (Aa)
q2 =homozygous recessives (aa)
Evolution occurs when equilibrium is upset.
WHY DO ALLELE FREQUENCIES
CHANGE?

Five factors can cause a deviation from

the genotype frequencies predicted by the
Hardy-Weinberg principle. These factors
are:
Mutation,
Migration,
Genetic drift,
Non-random mating
Selection.
 AGENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
MUTATION The ultimate source of all
variations.
Many genes mutate one to ten times per one
hundred thousand cell divisions.
However mutation rate is very slow and
mutation alone does not change allele
frequency much.
Nonetheless, mutation is the ultimate source
of genetic variation and thus makes evolution
possible.
 AGENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
MIGRATION A very potent agent of change.
Movement of individuals from one population to
another, changes the genetic compositions of
the populations.
Immigration is arrival of settlers in a new
region. The settlers introduce new alleles in
the existing population and thus lead to change
in allele frequency.
Emigration is the phenomenon of leaving one's
native region to settle in another. This also
leads to change in allele frequency.
 AGENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
GENETIC DRIFT These are statistical
accidents.
It is random change of alleles in a small
isolated population due to chance events
which may result in loss of particular alleles.
The individual alleles of a given gene are all
represented in few individuals, and some of
them may be lost from the population if those
individuals fail to reproduce.
Founder effect and Bottle- neck effect are
two ramifications of genetic drift.
 FOUNDER EFFECT

Founders New population

with high
frequency of
mutant allele
Initial population (a)

Due to founder effect rare allele combinations may be

enhanced in a new population when small band of
colonizers inhabit an isolated locality.
The founder effect is particularly important in the
evolution of organisms on islands, such as Galapagos
islands.
 BOTTLE- NECK EFFECT
Population size is
decreased due to
environmental factors

Surviving population
size grows and has
different allele
frequencies than the
Original population original population

In bottle-neck effect small founder population

becomes the sole source of alleles for a given species.
This results in decreases of genetic variability which
may lend to extinction of species.
 AGENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
NON-RANDOM MATING Individuals
with certain genotypes sometimes mate with
one another more commonly than would be
expected on a random basis.
Inbreeding (mating with relatives) is the most
common form of non random mating.
It does not alter allele frequency but
decreases the proportion of heterozygotes
(2pq) and increases homozygotes (p2 and q2).
 AGENTS OF EVOLUTIONARY
CHANGE
SELECTIONThe only form that produces adaptive
evolutionary changes. The environment imposes the
conditions that determine the results of selection and
thus the direction of evolution.
In Darwinian terms, survival and fertility mechanisms
that affect the reproductive success or promote
differential reproduction are known as selection.
Selection can be artificial or natural.
In artificial selection, the breeder selects for
desired characteristics while in natural selection, the
environment plays this role , with conditions in nature
determining which kind of individuals are most fit .
 FORMS OF SELECTION
Stabilizing selection operates

No. of individuals
in constant or unchanging
environment in which the
Original
selection favors the population
intermediates against the two
extremes. E.g. On studying Quantification of trait
birth mass in human it is seen
that very small babies are less Selection against both extremes

likely to survive while there is

also higher death rate among Population
very large babies. after
selection
Consequently selection is in
Original
favour of babies whose birth population
mass is around the mean.
 FORMS OF SELECTION
Directional selection :
It operates in

No. of individuals
favour of one extreme
when change in Original
population
environment is in a
particular direction.
Quantification of trait
Industrial melanism is
the best example of
such selection where Selection against one extreme
dark-form of moth
Population after
Biston betularia was selection
selected when the Original
surroundings became population

polluted due to
Industrial Revolution.
 FORMS OF SELECTION
Disruptive selection:

No. of individuals
Favors the two extremes at
the expense of
intermediates in a non- Original
population
homogenous environment.
Over time this will result in
Quantification of trait
two species.
For e.g. the color pattern of
butterfly Papilio dardanus Selection against the mean

closely resembles another Population

after
butterfly species which are selection
unpalatable. Any Original
intermediate color pattern is population
detected by birds and eaten.
 INDUSTRIAL MELANISM
Natural Selection in Action
English Peppered moth (Biston
betularia)is whitish with black
spots on its wings.
During the daytime, Peppered
moths were well-camouflaged as
they rested on the lichen covered
tree trunks.
Occasionally a very few moths
had a genetic mutation which
caused them to be all black, so
they are said to be melanic.

Melanic moths were not well camouflaged and hence fell prey to birds.
These melanic moths never got to reproduce and pass on their genes for
black color.
However in 1800, pollution caused by burning coal for industrial
revolution destroyed the lichens. The tree trunks became dark due to
soot. Now the melanic forms were better camouflaged and their
population increased.
 A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF EVOLUTION
It is rather intriguing that how molecular aggregates
would have formed macromolecules and these in turn
developed into single celled organisms.
Single celled organisms in turn evolved into more
complex multicellular organisms.
Time line of evolution - The earth’s past has been
divided into large blocks of time called eras. Eras
are further subdivided into smaller blocks of time
called periods and some periods are subdivided into
epochs.
The major geological eras with their approximate
dates in millions of years ago (abbreviated m.y.a),
are given as follows:
ARCHEAN ERA, 4600 to 2500 m.y.a.
Formation of earth took place and the first cells
appeared.
PROTEROZOIC ERA, 2500 to 590 m.y.a.
Eukaryotes appeared followed the first
multicellular organisms.
PALAEZOIC ERA, 590 to 250 m.y.a.
This era is divided into six periods: the Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and
Permian.
Permian During the Cambrian period, all of the main
invertebrate groups formed and during this era all
the vertebrate groups except birds and mammals
were established. The two eras that precede
Cambrian are designated Precambrian time.time
MESOZOIC ERA, 250 to 65 m.y.a.
This era is divided into three periods: the Triassic,
Triassic
Jurassic and Cretaceous.
Cretaceous This is the era of
dinosaurs which became the most dominant
creatures in Jurassic followed by extinction in
cretaceous. Also mammals and birds originated in
this era.
CENOZOIC ERA, 65 m.y.a. to present.
During this era mammals and birds became diverse
and human evolution took place. This era is divided
into two periods: the Tertiary and Quaternary.
Quaternar The
Tertiary period is divided into 5 epochs: the
Paleocene,
Paleocene Eocene,
Eocene Oligocene,
Oligocene Miocene and Pliocene.
Pliocene
The Quaternary period has 2 epochs: the
Pleistocene and Holocene (Recent).
 TIME LINE OF MAJOR
EVOLUTIONARY EVENTS
Origin of earth 4600 m.y.a.
Oldest rocks 3800 m.y.a.
Evidence of fossil bacteria 3500 m.y.a.
The first unicellular eukaryotes 1600 m.y.a.
First multicellular animals 700 m.y.a.
Evolution of hard skeletons (shells, chitin) 570 m.y.a.
Vascular plants and terrestrial arthropods 410 m.y.a.
Terrestrial vertebrates (amphibians) 360m.y.a.
Appearance of seed plants 345 m.y.a.
Appearance of first angiosperms 140 m.y.a.
 EVOLUTION
of
PLANT FORMS
through
GEOLOGICAL
PERIODS
 HUMAN EVOLUTION
Humans belong to order PRIMATES of class
Mammalia.
Primates are characterized by:
• Large brains
• 3-D vision, Reduced Sense of Smell
• Flexible shoulder joints, Vertical positioning of trunk
• Hands and feet with five digits
• Grasping, opposable thumb
• Flat fingernails instead of claws
• Extended gestation and maturation
• Strong maternal-offspring bond
• High degree of socialization
 CLASSIFICATION OF PRIMATES

Primates are divided into two main

suborders:
1. PROSIMIANS (before monkeys):
E.g. Lemurs, Lorises,Tarsiers
2. ANTHROPOIDS:
E.g. New World & Old World Monkeys,
Apes, Humans
 PROSIMIANS
Prosimians are mostly nocturnal, they have large eyes
with sensitive nocturnal vision, complex tactile hairs,
large and independently movable ears and a strong
sense of smell.
They have strong mobile digits.
They have nails (not claws) on all toes except 2nd.
A different dental formula – 2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3
Lemurs live only on the island of Madagascar,
Tarsiers live on the islands of the Philippines, Borneo,
Celebes Islands, and Sumatra, and Lorises live in
areas of Africa and South/Southeast Asia .
 PROSIMIANS

LORIS GALAGO TARSIER

LEMUR
 NEW WORLD MONKEYS
These monkeys live in the neotropical forests
of the “new world” (Central and South
America).
These are characterized by:
• Wide nostrils which are circular and spaced
apart (Platyrrhines).
• They are small to medium sized.
• Long tails which are sometimes prehensile.
• No buttock pads.
• No cheek pouches.
• Dental formula – 2.1.3.3/2.1.3.3
 NEW WORLD MONKEYS

SPIDER MONKEY
HOWLER MONKEY
PYGMY MARMOSET

SQUIRREL MONKEY CAPUCHIN

 OLD WORLD MONKEYS

Old World monkeys live in Africa and Asia.

These are characterized by:
• Narrow and downward pointing nostrils (Catarrhines).
• Longer hind legs than forearms.
• Flattened nails on fingers and toes.
• Prominent buttock pads that they can sit on.
• Tails are not prehensile.
• Dental formula – 2.1.2.3/2.1.2.3
• They are generally larger than the New World
monkeys.
 OLD WORLD MONKEYS

GRAY LANGUR BABOON

MANDRILL

DIANA GUENON
PATAS MONKEY
MACAQUE (RHESUS)
 APES
Apes are usually larger and heavier than monkeys.
Apes have no tail.
Apes have a more upright body posture than
monkeys, and are often able to walk on 2 legs.
Apes have a broad chest.
Apes rely on vision rather than smell, and thus have
shorter noses than some monkeys.
Apes have a large brain to body size ratio compared
with other animals.
Apes are able to use tools and use language.
Apes only live in Africa and Asia.
 APES

GORILLA

ORANGUTAN
BONOBO

GIBBON

CHIMPANZEE
 HUMAN EVOLUTION

About 15 million years ago the world’s climate

became cooler.
Great forests were replaced by grasslands.
The savannahs of central Africa became the cradle
of human evolution where the first hominids
originated.
The hominids are characterized by larger brains
and bipedal locomotion.
Hominids have diminished face and teeth.
Use of tools is a notable feature of hominids.
 New Orang-
World Old World Gibbon utan Gorilla Chimpanzee
Monkeys Monkeys
Prosimians

10 Modern
Man

20 Australopithecus

30

40 Dryopithecus (Proconsul)

50

60 m.y.a PRIMATE EVOLUTION

 DRYOPITHECUS
Dryopithecus was a genus
of apes found from
Eastern Africa to Eurasia.
It lived during the Upper
Miocene period, from 12 to
9 million years ago. DRYOPITHECUS- Skull
It was the common
ancestor of the apes and
man.
It was a tree-dwelling
animal that ate berries and
fruits.
It was quadruped. Reconstructed head of Dryopithecus
 HOMINIDS THROUGH TIME
Major Homo advances:
Brain size
Better bipedalism
Hunting
Fire (H. erectus)
Tools
Oldowan (H. habilis)
Acheulean (H. erectus)
Mousterian (H.
heidelbergensis)
Solutrean (H. sapiens)
Built shelters (H.
heidelbergensis)
Clothing (H.
neanderthalensis)
Language (Cro-Magnon) A.africanus H.erectus H.sapiens
0 H.
sapiens

H. neanderthalensis
1
Probable
H. heidelbergensis H. erectus
Line of
2 Human
Evolution
H. habilis A. boisei

3
A. africanus

4
A. afarensis
 AUSTRALOPITHECINES
The australopithecines are only known from Africa and
are believed to be the earliest known true hominids.
They had ape-sized brains; their cranial capacity
ranged from 375 to 530 cc.
They had strong jaws with large teeth.
Like modern gorillas, the adult males were much larger
than the females.
Raymond Dart found the skull of infant – called it
Tuang baby (A. africanus)
Mary Leakey found another fossil, later called
A. boisei – a large toothed, vegetarian ape.
Donald Johanson found a almost complete fossil which
is called A. afarensis (‘Lucy’) which is considered in
the line of human evolution.
 Australopithecus afarensis

Dr. Donald Johanson with the remains of A. afarensis named as LUCY.

This hominid lived between 3.9 and 2.9 million years
ago.
A. afarensis was slenderly built. From analysis it has
been thought that A. afarensis was ancestral to both
the genus Australopithecus and the genus Homo,
which includes the modern human species, Homo
sapiens.
 Australopithecus afarensis
Skull of A.afarensis

Jaw of A.afarensis

A reconstruction of Australopithecus
Jaw of Homo sapiens afarensis, a human ancestor that had
developed bipedalism, but which lacked
the large brain of modern humans.
LAETOLI - FOOTPRINTS IN THE
SANDS OF TIME
Associates of Mary
Leakey in 1978 found a
series of human foot trails
at the site Laetoli thirty
miles south of Olduvai
Gorge in Africa. 
The strata has been
dated 3.6 m.y.a.
These findings indicate that
bipedalism had evolved by
3.6 m.y.a. and it preceded
larger brains.
 Homo habilis

Found from Pleistocene

H.habilis
rocks by Louis S. B. Leakey Skull
A cultural tool-maker.
Capable of bipedal
locomotion and hands
capable of power grip.
Range of cranial capacity-
680 to 775 cc.
Made stone tools called as
Oldowan tools.

Artist’s representation of a
H.habilis band as it might have
existed two million years ago.
 Homo erectus
(PITHECANTHROPINES)
Fossils of h. erectus have
been found from Java,
China, Europe and Africa.
Java man
(Pithecanthropus)
First to use fire for
cooking and warmth.
Omnivore and cannibal.
Cranial capacity 800 – H.erectus
1000 cc. Skull

Discovered by Dr. Eugene

Dubois.
 Homo erectus
(PITHECANTHROPINES)

Peking Man (Sinanthropus

pekinensis)
Discovered by Davidson
Black and W.C. Pei
Cranial capacity 850 –
1300 cc.
Knew the use of fire.
Omnivore and cannibal

H.erectus pekinensis
Skull
 Homo erectus
(PITHECANTHROPINES)
Heidelberg man
Intermediate between H.
erectus and Neanderthal
Man
Large mandible, small teeth,
rounded jaw.
Evidence of tools, fire and
some form of
communication.
H.heidelbergensis
Skull
 NEANDERTHAL MAN
(Homo sapiens neanderthalensis)
Fossils discovered from
Neander valley near Dusseldorf
(Germany)
Fashioned animal skin for
clothing.
Started with burial customs
Prognathous head with heavy
brow ridges
No chin
H.sapiens neanderthalensis
Cannibals Skull
Cranial capacity 1300-1600 cc
On the basis of DNA findings
these have been excluded from
ancestry of modern man.
 CRO-MAGNON MAN
(Homo sapiens fossilis)
Direct ancestor of modern
man
Found from late Pleistocene Cro- Magnon’s
to early Holocene rocks Skull

Fore-head and cranium very

high, presence of chin
Artist’s
Cranial capacity 1650 cc. reconstruction
Articulated language of a Cro-
Magnon man
Used bows and arrows
Domesticated dog
Drew paintings on cave walls
 Homo sapiens sapiens
(MODERN MAN)
Appeared 25000 years ago.
Formation of 4 flexors in the vertebral column.
Reduction in cranial capacity (1450 ml) due to
development of ridges and furrows.

Comparison of Cranial Capacities

 EVIDENCE FOR COMMON ANCESTRY OF
APES AND MAN
Although apes have 48 chromosomes and man has
46 chromosomes, the banding pattern of
chromosome no. 3 and 6 is same.
The human and ape blood proteins show 98.5%
similarity.
There is 99% homology in the hemoglobin of man
and chimpanzee.
Human and chimpanzee’s DNA differ in less than
3% of their nucleotide sequence.
A and B blood groups are found in apes but not in
monkeys.
The information provided here must
prove useful to you.

Good Luck and Thank you