The Blood Vessels

The cardiovascular system has three

types of blood vessels:
Arteries (and arterioles) – carry blood
away from the heart
Capillaries – where nutrient and gas
exchange occur
Veins (and venules) – carry blood toward
the heart.
Blood vessels
The walls of arteries and veins have three layers.
The inner layer is composed largely of endothelium, with a
basement membrane that has elastic fibers;
the middle layer is smooth muscle tissue;
the outer layer is connective tissue (largely collagen fibers).

Arteries (on left) have a thicker wall than veins because

they have a larger middle layer than veins. Capillary walls
(center) are one-cell-thick endothelium. Veins (on right)
are larger in diameter than arteries, so that collectively
veins have a larger holding capacity than arteries.
The Arteries
 Arteries and arterioles take blood
away from the heart.
 The largest artery is the aorta.
 The middle layer of an artery wall
consists of smooth muscle that can
constrict to regulate blood flow and
blood pressure.
 Arterioles can constrict or dilate,
changing blood pressure.
The Capillaries
Capillaries have walls only one cell thick to allow
exchange of gases and nutrients with tissue fluid.
Capillary beds are present in all regions of the body
but not all capillary beds are open at the same time.
Contraction of a sphincter muscle closes off a bed and
blood can flow through an arteriovenous shunt that
bypasses the capillary bed.
Type of capilaries : continuous, sinusoid, fenestrated
Anatomy of a capillary bed
A capillary bed forms a maze of capillary vessels that
lies between an arteriole and a venule. When sphincter
muscles are relaxed, the capillary bed is open, and
blood flows through the capillaries. When sphincter
muscles are contracted, blood flows through a shunt
that carries blood directly from an arteriole to a venule.
As blood passes through a capillary in the tissues, it
gives up its oxygen (O2). Therefore, blood goes from
being O2-rich in the arteriole (red color) to being O2-
poor in the vein (blue color).
The Vascular Pathways
 The cardiovascular system includes
two circuits:
1) Pulmonary circuit which circulates
blood through the lungs, and
2) Systemic circuit which circulates
blood to the rest of the body.
3) Both circuits are vital to homeostasis.
Cardiovascular system diagram
The Pulmonary Circuit
The pulmonary circuit begins with the
pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle
which branches into two pulmonary
arteries that take oxygen-poor blood to
the lungs.
In the lungs, oxygen diffuses into the
blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of
the blood to be expelled by the lungs.
Four pulmonary veins return oxygen-rich
blood to the left atrium.
The Systemic Circuit
The systemic circuit starts with the aorta
carrying O2-rich blood from the left
ventricle.
The aorta branches with an artery going
to each specific organ.
Generally, an artery divides into
arterioles and capillaries which then lead
to venules.
Blood Flow
The beating of the heart is necessary
to homeostasis because it creates
pressure that propels blood in arteries
and the arterioles.
Arterioles lead to the capillaries where
nutrient and gas exchange with tissue
fluid takes place.
Blood Flow in Arteries
Blood pressure due to the pumping of the
heart accounts for the flow of blood in the
arteries.
Systolic pressure is high when the heart
expels the blood.
Diastolic pressure occurs when the heart
ventricles are relaxing.
Both pressures decrease with distance
from the left ventricle because blood
enters more and more arterioles and
arteries.
Although the blood pressure in the brachial artery is
typically about 120/80, blood pressure actually varies
throughout the body. Blood pressure is highest in the
aorta and lowest in the venae cavae.
Blood Flow in Veins
 Venous blood flow is dependent upon:
1) skeletal muscle contraction,
2) presence of valves in veins, and
3) respiratory movements.
 Compression of veins causes blood to
move forward past a valve that then
prevents it from returning backward.
Blood pressure (BP)
A constant flow of blood is necessary to transport
oxygen to the cells of the body
The arteries maintain an average blood pressure of
around 90 mmHg
This helps push the blood from the arteries into the
capillaries
In the capillaries, oxygen transfers from the blood to
the cells
Systole and Diastole
The arteries fluctuate between a state of systole and
diastole
In systole, the pressure in the arteries increases as the
heart pumps blood into the arterial system
As the pressure increases, the elastic walls of the
arteries stretch
This can be felt as a pulse in certain arteries
Systole and Diastole
In diastole, the recoil of the elastic arteries forces
blood out of the arterial system into the capillaries
The pressure in the arteries falls as blood leaves the
system
Minimum diastolic pressure is typically 70-80 mmHg
Maximum systolic pressure is typically 110-120 mmHg
Factors affecting ABP:
■ Sex … M > F …due to hormones/ equal at menopause.
■ Age … Elderly > children …due to atherosclerosis.
■ Emotions … due to secretion of adrenaline & noradrenaline.
■ Exercise … due to  venous return.
■ Hormones … (e.g. Adrenaline, noradrenaline, thyroid H).
■ Gravity …  Lower limbs > upper limbs.
■ Race … Orientals > Westerns … ? dietry factors, or weather.
■ Sleep …  due to  venous return.
■ Pregnancy … due to  metabolism.
Cross-sectional area as it relates to
blood pressure and velocity

Blood pressure
and blood
velocity drop off
in capillaries
because
capillaries have
a greater cross-
sectional area
than arteries
Regulation Of COP
COP = SV X HR

HR : Sympatic /parasympatic

SV : Venous return, Contractility
Factors determining ABP:
Blood Pressure = Cardiac Output X PR

(CO) (PR)
(BP) Flow Diameter of
arterioles

■ BP depends on:
1. Cardiac output  CO = SV X HR.
2. Peripheral resistance.
3. Blood volume.
More cells constriction of blood
vessel walls
BP regulation
A fast acting mechanism.
■ Controlled by 3 mechanisms: neural, local, and
hormonal
Neural : sympatic or parasympatic activity
Local factors : consentrasion of CO2, O2,
and p H
Hormonal : norepinefrin, estrogen, angiotensin II,
vasopresin
Regulation of ABP:
■ Maintaining B.P. is important to ensure a steady
blood flow (perfusion) to tissues.

■ B.P. is regulated neurally through centers in

medulla oblongata:
1. Vasomotor Center (V.M.C.), or (pressor area):
 Sympathetic fibers.
2. Cardiac Inhibitory Center (C.I.C.), or (depressor
area):  Parasympathetic fibers (vagus).
Regulation of ABP (continued)
cardiac control centers in medulla oblongata

1. Cardiacaccelerator 2. Cardiacinhibitory
center center
(V.M.C) (C.I.C)

Sympathetic n. fibers Parasympathetic n. fibers

 Regulatory mechanisms depend on:
a. Fast acting reflexes:
Concerned by controlling CO (SV, HR), & PR.
b. Long-term mechanism:
Concerned mainly by regulating the blood volume.
1. Baroreceptors reflex:

■ Baroreceptors are receptors found in carotid sinus

& aortic arch.
■ Are stimulated by changes in BP.
 BP

+ Baroreceptors
= V.M.C ++ C.I.C

= Sympathetic + Parasympathetic

Vasodilatation &  TPR Slowing of SA node ( HR)

&  CO
2. Chemoreceptors reflex:
■ Chemoreceptors are receptors found in carotid &
aortic bodies.
■ Are stimulated by chemical changes in blood
mainly hypoxia ( O2), hypercapnia ( CO2), &
pH changes.
Haemorrhage  BP
Hypoxia

++ V.M.C + Chemoreceptors = C.I.C

+ Sympathetic = Parasympathetic
+ Adrenal
medulla
Vasoconstriction  HR
&  TPR
3. Other Vasomotor Reflexes:
1. Atrial stretch receptor reflex:
 Venous Return  ++ atrial stretch receptors 
reflex vasodilatation &  BP.
2. Thermoreceptors: (in skin/or hypothalamus)
 Exposure to heat  vasodilatation.
 Exposure to cold  vasoconstriction.

3. Pulmonary receptors:
Lung inflation  vasoconstriction.
4. Hormonal Agents:
■ NA  vasoconstriction.
■ A  vasoconstriction (except in sk. ms.).
■ Angiotensin II  vasoconstriction.
■ Vasopressin  vasoconstriction.
B. Regulation of Blood Volume
Regulation of Blood Volume:
■ A long-term regulatory mechanism.
■ Mainly renal:
1. Renin-Angiotensin System.
2. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), or
vasopressin.
3. Low-pressure volume receptors.
1. Renin-Angiotensin System:
■ Most important mechanism for Na+ retention in
order to maintain the blood volume.

■ Any drop of renal blood flow &/or  Na+, will

stimulate volume receptors found in juxtaglomerular
apparatus of the kidneys to secrete Renin which will
act on the Angiotensin System leading to
production
of aldosterone.
• Renin-Angiotensin System:
 renal blood flow &/or  Na+

++ Juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidneys

(considered volume receptors)

Renin
Angiotensin I
Angiotensinogen
Converting
(Lungs)
enzymes
Angiotensin III Angiotensin II
(powerful (powerful
vasoconstrictor) vasoconstrictor)
Adrenal
cortex
Corticosterone
Aldosterone
N.B. Aldosterone is the main regulator of Na+ retention.
2. Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH), or vasopressin:
■ Hypovolemia & dehydration will stimulate the
osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus, which will
lead
to release of ADH from posterior pituitary gland.

■ ADH will cause water reabsorption at kidney

tubules.
3. Low-pressure volume receptors:
■ Atrial natriuritic peptide (ANP) hormone, is
secreted from the wall of right atrium to
regulate Na+ excretion in order to maintain
blood volume.