Biomechanical and

Anatomical Concepts
By:
Dr. Murtaza Najabat Ali (Ceng MIMechE)

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 Major Joints

 In machine theory, joints are often classified by their Degree

of Freedom

Pin, or Hinge Joint

 The most common machine joint is the pin (the hinge or
revolute joint) having one Degree of Freedom

 Another one Degree of Freedom joint is the Slider

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 Major Joints
 The most common three Degree of Freedom
joint is the Ball-and-Socket , or Spherical
joint

 Bio-joints, or human body joints, are often

represented or modelled by these mechanical
joints

 The elbows and knees are modelled as Hinges

and the hips and shoulders are modelled as
Ball-and-Sockets

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 Types of joints
1. Fibrous joints
1. Sutures
2. Syndesmoses

2. Cartilaginous joints

3. Synovial joints
1. Plane (gliding)
2. Hinge
3. Pivot
4. Condyloid
5. Saddle
6. Ball and socket
 1. Fibrous joints
• Characteristics
– Joined by fibrous tissue.
– No joint cavity.
– Seldom movement.

• Types
– Sutures
• Interlocked by connective tissues and irregular edges between bones
(skull).

– Syndesmoses
• Articulated bones connected by ligaments and bones that do not
interlock. (Fibula and Tibia)

– Gomphosis: tooth secured by periodontal ligament.

 Fibrous joints

Fibula
Tibia

Ligament

Dense
fibrous
connective
tissue

(a) Suture Suture line (b) Syndesmosis

Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7e Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.,

by Elaine Marieb & Katja Hoehn publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 Fibrous joints

Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7e Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.,

by Elaine Marieb & Katja Hoehn publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 2. Cartilaginous joints
• Characteristic
– Articulating bone ends are connected by a plate of
cartilage.
– Types
• Sympheses (growing together): connected by a flat disc
of fibrous cartilage (intervertebral joints).

• Synchondroses: Bones are connected by hyaline

cartilage (ribs-sternum or epiphyseal plates).
 Cartilaginous joints

Synchondroses

Sternum (manubrium)
Epiphyseal
plate
(hyaline Joint between first rib
cartilage) and sternum (immovable)

(a)

(b)

Fibrocartilaginous
intervertebral
disc
Body of vertebra

(c)
Symphyses
Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7e Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.,
by Elaine Marieb & Katja Hoehn publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
 3. Synovial joints
• Characteristics
– Articulating bones are separated in a cavity containing synovial fluid.
– Uniaxial or multiaxial movement.
– Joint surfaces are enclosed in a 2 layered articular capsule
(connective tissue).
– Inner layer: synovial membrane (smooth)
– Articular (hyaline) cartilage covers the bone surfaces.
– Articular capsule may be reinforced with ligaments containing a
bursae (fluid filled sacs to reduce friction).
– Fibrocartilage may be present in the capsule.
 General structure of a synovial joint

Periosteum

Ligament

Joint cavity
(contains
synovial fluid)

Articular (hyaline)
cartilage

Fibrous
capsule Articular
Synovial capsule
membrane

(b)

(a)

Human Anatomy and Physiology, 7e Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.,

by Elaine Marieb & Katja Hoehn publishing as Benjamin Cummings.
Synovial joints classified by
shape
(of their articular surfaces)

 Plane (see right)

 Hinge (see right)
 Pivot
 Condyloid
 Saddle
 Ball-and-socket
 Major Joints

 A close examination of the limb

movements at the elbows and knees,

however, shows that the joints

behave only approximately as

Hinges

 Also, the shoulders and hips are only

approximately Spherical
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 Major Joints
 The Spine movement may be modelled through a series
of joints at the vertebral interfaces.

 The joints in the spinal column are located posterior to

the vertebral body (on the backside). Facet joints help
the spine to bend, twist, and extend in different
directions. Although these joints enable movement, they
also restrict excessive movement .

 Each vertebra has two sets of facet joints. The superior

articular facet faces upward and works like a hinge with
the inferior articular facet

 Like other joints in the body, each Facet joint is

surrounded by a capsule of connective tissue and
produces synovial fluid to nourish and lubricate the
joint. The surfaces of the joint are coated with cartilage
that helps each joint to move (articulate) smoothly

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 Major Joints

 Since the greatest flexibility is in the neck,

the Cervical joints are best represented by
six Degree of Freedom joints, having both
translation and rotation

 Since there is less movement and almost no

translation in the Thoracic and Lumbar
spines

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 The Elbow

• The elbow is actually three joints.  

• The first joint is similar to a door

hinge.  

• It allows the arm to bend and

straighten.  

• The other two joints are between the

upper arm bone (humerus) and the two
bones of the forearm (ulna and radius).  

• These two joints allow the forearm to

rotate.  

• The combination of the three joints

allows the forearm to move up and
down and to rotate, all at the same time
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 The Elbow
• Muscles seldom act alone when moving a joint.  

• In the case of elbow flexion (forearm moved upward toward the

biceps), the two prime movers are the biceps brachi and the
brachialis muscles

• Because of this interrelationship between muscles and the way

these muscles are attached to the bones of the forearm, there are
certain positions of the elbow joint that are stronger than
others.  

• For example, with the palm of the hand facing up (supination),

the hand and forearm can support a heavier load than when the
hand is facing down (pronation). 

• This strength difference is due to the way the tendons of the

biceps brachi and brachialis muscles are attached to the bones
of the forearm.  When the hand is up, the connection is
ideal.  Then, as the hand rotates down, the radius bone of the
forearm must rotate and the tendon attachment point is pulled
off to the side and becomes less efficient.   18
 The Elbow

• You can feel this by holding your right forearm at 900 with

your palm facing upward. 

Radius bone must rotate

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 The Elbow
• Now, place the fingers of your left hand on the tendon that connects the biceps muscle to the
bones of your forearm
• Next, rotate your hand downward and feel the tendon of the biceps move as the bones
rotate.
• The result of this movement is a loss of strength.
• As a test, hold your forearm at 90 degrees with your hand facing upward (supination) and
apply a downward pressure to that hand. 
•  Next, rotate your hand so that it is facing downward (pronation) and apply the same
downward pressure to the back of your hand.  
• You will notice a significant loss of strength when the hand is pronated

Feel the tendons rotate as your hand rotates

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 Joint stability
 Articular surfaces
 Shape usually plays only minor role
 Some deep sockets or grooves do provide stability
 Ligaments
 Usually the more, the stronger the joint
 Can stretch only 6% beyond normal length before tear
 Once stretched, stay stretched
 Muscle tone
 Constant, low level of contractile force
 Keeps tension on the ligaments
 Especially important at shoulders, knees, arches of foot
Movements allowed by synovial joints
 Gliding
 Angular movements: hor i the angle between two
bones DO TOGETHER
 Flexion
 Extension
 Abduction
 Adduction
 Circumduction
 Rotation
 Special movements
 Special movements

 Pronation  Protraction
 Supination  Retraction
 Dorsiflexion  Elevation
 Plantar flexion  Depression
 Inversion  Opposition
 Eversion
Joint movements pics
(from Marieb, 4th ed.)
 Biomechanical Concepts
Basic Kinematic Concepts

1. Variables for Describing Motion

2. Reference Systems for Describing Motion of the Human Body and Its
Segments

3. Guidelines for Describing Motion of the Human Body and Its Segments

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 Biomechanical Concepts

Rigid Body Mechanics

Rigid Body
Mechanics

Statics Dynamics

Constant Velocity Motionless Kinematics Kinetics

Kinematics Kinetics

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 Biomechanical Concepts

What is kinematics?

• Spatial and temporal characteristics

• Qualitative or quantitative

• Linear & angular motion

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 Biomechanical Concepts

Why use kinematics?

• Practical: Provides a standard for us in performing, teaching, or evaluating a

skill

• Research: Once we describe, we can ask why?

Problem with kinematics?

• Practical: Proper kinematics does not always mean proper force
application

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 Biomechanical Concepts

Basic Kinematic Concepts

1. Variables for Describing Motion

2. Reference Systems for Describing Motion of the Human

Body & Its Segments

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts

Kinematic Variables

• Time

• Position

• Displacement & distance

• Velocity & speed

• Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts

Kinematic Variables

Time – Temporal Analysis

WHEN? Most basic analysis:

Examples:
HOW OFTEN?
• Cadence
IN WHAT ORDER?
• Stride time
HOW LONG?
• Temporal patterning

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Temporal Patterning

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Temporal Patterning Stance Swing

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Absolute vs. Relative Timing

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Position
WHERE?

• Position - location in space relative to some reference point

• Linear position (s) ………… x,y,z coordinates

• Angular position ()

• Units

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Displacement & Distance

HOW FAR?

• Displacement (s, )

– Final change in position

– Vector quantity

• Distance (p, )

– Sum of all changes in position

– Scalar quantity

Units (m, °) 41
 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

HOW QUICKLY IS
HOW FAST?
VELOCITY CHANGING?

• Velocity (v, ) • Acceleration (a, )

– Vector quantity – Vector quantity

– position  time – velocity  time

– Units (m.s-1, °.s-1) – Units (m.s-2, °.s-2)

– Insight into forces/torques

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts
Kinematic Variables

 Velocity & Acceleration

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts

1. Types of Motion

2. Variables for Describing Motion

3. Reference Systems for Describing Motion of the Human

Body & Its Segments

4. Guidelines for Describing Motion of the Human Body & Its

Segments

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 Basic Kinematic Concepts

 Reference Systems: Linear

+y vertical

horizontal
-x +x

Must define origin of

horizontal reference system to
+z quantify kinematics.

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-y
 Basic Kinematic Concepts
 Absolute Reference Systems: Angular
/2 rad
90° ¼ rev

CCW +

180° 0°
p rad 2 rad
½ rev 1 rev

270°
3/2 rad
¾ rev
 Basic Kinematic Concepts

 Relative Reference Systems: Angular

 Basic Kinematic Concepts

 Relative Reference Systems

All Joints @ 0except

•Ankle @ 90
•Forearm varies

Fundamental Anatomical
Standing Standing
Position Position
 Basic Kinematic Concepts

 Reference Systems for Measuring Joint Position & Displacement

 Basic Kinematic Concepts

 Reference Systems for Measuring Joint Position & Displacement

Linear Kinematic Concepts
Kinematics of Projectile Motion
 Kinematics of Projectile Motion

 Influence of Gravity
 Kinematics of Projectile Motion

 Factors influencing projectile trajectory

 Kinematics of Projectile Motion

 Factors influencing projectile trajectory

 Kinematics of Projectile Motion

 Factors influencing projectile trajectory

 Kinematics of Projectile Motion
 Factors influencing projectile trajectory
 Kinematics of Projectile Motion
 Factors influencing projectile trajectory
 Kinematics of Projectile Motion
 Factors influencing projectile trajectory
 Kinematics of Projectile Motion
 Optimum projection conditions