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Water
Estimates of Global Morbidity & Mortality of Water-Related Diseases (early 1990s) Disease Diarrheal Diseases Intestinal Helminths Schistosomiasis Dracunculiasis Trachoma Malaria Dengue Fever Poliomyelitis Trypanosomiasis Bancroftian Filariasis Onchocerciasis Morbidity (episodes/year or people infected) 1,000,000,000 1,500,000,000 (people infected) 200,000,000 (people infected) 150,000 (in 1996) 150,000,000 (active cases) 400,000,000 1,750,000 114,000 275,000 72,800,000 (people infected) 17,700,000 (people infected; 270,000 blind) Mortality (deaths/year) 3,300,000 100,000 200,000
. Social Concerns.
Waterborne diseases. Bad project planning resulted in spread of malaria and other water born diseases as vector spread in canal and dams. Displacement of native populations. The development of water projects in the last century has led to the displacement of 40 80 million people. Compensation for these forced changes has usually been minimal, if it occurs at all. International conflicts and water supply. There are 261 rivers that cross international boundaries. The division of water resources between countries can either be a source of conflict or a reason for necessary cooperation. 162 treaties were signed an implemented for cooperative water management. Some major disputes ar not settled
Heterogeneity of water
There are differences in water availability within regions-in Brazil,Mexico, California, Hawaii, Russia, there are regions of floods and surpluses and deserts. Differences in water availability over time matter - at the same year you may have floods and shortages Differences in water quality are crucial- consumption, farming of various crops and production require minimum quality. Value and use of water dependent on
location Time Quality
non-consumptive usage. Do not educe water supply and, frequently, do not degrade water quality. Examples
Fisheries use water as a medium for fish growth. Hydroelectric users extract energy from the water. Recreation may involve using water as a medium (example: swimming) and/or extracting energy from the water (examples: whitewater rafting, surfing) Transportation is especially important use of water in the tropics.
Overview of irrigation
irrigated land has increased from 50 mha (million hectares) in 1900 to 267 mha today. Between 1962 and 1996 the irrigated area in developing countries increased at 2% annually. Irrigation has been crucial in meeting the food demand of doubling world population since WWII. Irrigation projects have been costly in terms of capital, environmental degradation& human health. Design and management of water resources have been flawed. There is a growing perception of water supply crisis,but we have a water management crisis. As population is likely to grow double again, we need to reform water institutions and policies. This presentation first assesses water situation and then introduces direction for reform.
BENEFITS OF IRRIGATION
Irrigation increases crop yields.- The 17% of land that is irrigated is producing 40% of the global food The value of production of irrigated cropland is about $625/ha/year ($95/ha/year for rain-fed cropland and $17.50/ha/year for rangelands). Irrigation affects total factor productivity (TFP) beyond the input value of the water(evanson,pray,Rosegrant)., Irrigation allows improve timing and spatial distribution of water. It allows double cropping, it enables supply stabilization. It enable production of vegetables and fruits. Increases consumer well being& employment & farm income(net income increase per family in Africa was $150 - $1000)
1% increase in irrigation increase productivity by .12-.25%. But these are marginal effects There is a significant heterogeneity within fields-35% of yield variance is within field There is a significant fixed effect of water. Irrigation may double or even triple yields,it increase water availability and controls when and where water is available. . The high yields of irrigations may reflect climatic effectsdesert areas have higher sun energy and degree days that with irrigation leads to higher yields Modern irrigation and pumping modify ranking and values of land- irrigation technologies is water quality augmenting.
Productivity of irrigation
Climate (degree days) Soils It may be worth while to export water to regions with warm and dry climate and good soils.
Water Projects
Projects modify bodies of water to enhance some aspects of productivity. They may include Navigation projects Storage projects Flood protection projects Hydroelectric project Projects may have negative environmental and social effects. A correct analysis of net discounted benefits is a useful guide for project selection. It should account for non market impacts and uncertainties. Project design should consider institutional and non structural solutions. Redesign of incentives may lead to water savings preventing a need for a new dam. Cost of projects vary. Costs over run reduce the net benefits of projects. Projects have non market costs as well.
Water variability and projects in the tropics Water conditions in the tropics vary- there are deserts in
Brazil and Africa,and desertification is a continuous concern in both continent. Land and water management projects can slow these processes. He challenge is cost effective and environmental sensitive design, leading to efficient and equitable outcomes. Projects to improve water flow and reduce water stagnation are also important to improve transportation and to improve public health. A major priority is to eliminate water borne diseases-using structural solutions (drainage, sanitation),management activities( pest control) and medical treatment Flood control projects used for storage and hydro electric power generation may be very valuable in the Hymmalayas foothills and other regions. .
. The capital costs of water projects have been underestimated. A recent study of 81 dams found that the average cost overrun was 56%. The cost of irrigation has increased substantially since the 1970s. Irrigation costs now average $480,000 per square km. Cost varies by location - the capital cost in China is $150,000 per square km, while the costs in Africa capital costs are $1,000,000-2,000,000 per square km. Mexico's irrigated area has actually declined since 1985 due to lack of capita
Increased salinity levels in freshwater supplies Water logging and salinization of land Cost 11Billion annually
20% of the irrigated land worldwide is affected by salinity 1.5 million hectares are taken out of production each year as a result of high salinity levels in the soil.
BUT Trading may cause third party effects that have to be taken into account in design of system of trading
Virtual water
Value of water vary by location. Defining a water shortage as a situation where water per capita is below a certain level is not always useful when a region with minimal water can use it productively and generate resources to buy cheap water intensive crops. For example, an acre foot of water used in flower production is equivalent in the value of productivity to 3040acre feet used in wheat. Measure of water shortages should combine water availability and productivity. Water constraints are less binding as trade opportunities expand.
PA was designed to induce investment in diversion .But PA does not provide incentives for water conservation. Transferable Rights in water lead to trading and investment in conservation. Trading design has to be adjusted mitigate negative third party effects. Transition to Trading may not be worth while if gains are smaller than the transition costs.
Inefficiencies in micro-level water management Farmer selection of crops and irrigation technologies affect water use. Conservation technologies increase water use efficiency but require higher per acre cost There is 6% adoption of sprinkler and 1% adoption of drip. There are low tech drip like technologies Low pricing of water is not justifying adoption Efficient Pricing of water and drainage will lea to aoption
IMPROVED CONVEYANCE AND THE ALLOCATION OF WATER. Poor management of irrigation systems leads to conveyance losses of up to 50 percent The social benefit of canal maintenance is greater than the private benefit. Ignoring these leads to under investment in canal maintenance, resulting in shorter canal systems than optimal
over-application of water upstream
Water systems run by a water user associations are more efficient and better maintained (Madagaskar,india,China).WUA tax members and improve distribution and pricing.
Need more impact assessment of irrigation and more econometric studies of performance. Irrigation crucial to productivity-some systems are not sustainable because of over pumping There is much potential to increase water productivity through incentives A priority is to increase trading within regions and to improve maintenance-through institutional changes Irrigation technologies and improvement in varieties are another sources of improved water productivity in agriculture. Water management is a major challenge-cost benefit needed to improve investment choice and integrate agriculture and environment and urban water use. Main challenge is efficient irrigation at the regional level.
Conclusions
Refernces
David Zilberman, Ujjayant Chakravorty, and Farhed Shah, Efficient Management of Water in Agriculture, Decentralization and Coordination of Water Resource Management, ed., Douglas D. Parker and Yacov Tsur (Boston: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1997), Chapter 22. As part of the book series, Natural Resource Management and Policy, Ariel Dinar and David Zilberman, editors.International Water Management Institute (2001) home page:
http://www.cgiar.org/iwmi/home/wsmap.htm
K. William Easter, Mark W. Rosegrant and Ariel Dinar, "Formal and Informal Markets for Water: Institutions, performance, and Constraints," The World Bank Research Observer, 14:1, pp. 99-116. Richards, Alan (2001) Coping with Water Scarcity: The Governance Challenge Center for Global, International and Regional Studies Working Paper. University of California, Santa Cruz. http://www2.ucsc.edu/globalinterns/wp/wp2001-4.pdf