MODULE 2:

Electronic Circuits

LEVEL-2
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Module Objectives
 Identify the different types of electronic circuits.
 Describe the stages of electronic power supply circuits.
 Identify the different types of rectifier circuits.
 Describe the operation of half-wave and full-wave rectifier
circuits.
 Identify the different types of filter circuits.
 Describe the operation and application of filter circuits.
 Identify the different types of voltage regulator circuits.

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Module Objectives
 Describe the operation and applications of voltage regulation
circuits.
 Explain the applications of Power supply in Avionics systems.
 Describe the process of amplification (current, voltage and power).
 Identify the different types of amplifier circuits and their parameters.
 Describe the operation and characteristic CE, CB and CC amplifier
configurations.
 Describe the biasing methods required to operate a transistor as
class A, B, AB and C amplifier circuits.

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Module Objectives
 Identify the different types of amplifier circuits based of their signal
coupling
 Identify the types of amplifier circuits based on their functions and
operating frequency regions.
 Describe the operation of an OP-Amp integrated circuits.
 Describe the types and operation of oscillator circuits
 Describe the operation and characteristics of astable, bistable &
monostable multivibrators.
 Describe construction and use of printed circuit boards (PCB).

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Module Structure

Lesson 1 Lesson 2 Lesson 3

2.1 2.2 2.3
Electronic Power Amplifier Circuits Integrated Circuits
Supply Circuits

Lesson 4 Lesson 5
2.4. 2.5.
Oscillator Circuits Printed Circuit Boards
(PCB)

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 Lesson 1:
Electronic Power Supply Circuits

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Electronic Power supply Introduction
• Power supply is a circuit or device that changes the primary
electric power into the kind and amount of AC, or DC needed by
different electronic circuits.
• DC power is necessary for all electronics circuit.
• Ready made dc is obtained from Dry cells, or Batteries.
• The cheapest electricity available is AC source, and
• we have to convert it to the desired DC level.

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Electronic Power Supply
• Some power supplies operate from 120 volt 60 Hz ac power
line.
• Others operate from 220 volt, 50 Hz ac power line (in
Ethiopia and Europe),
• The 115 volt, 400 Hz ac power used in aircraft electrical
systems.

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Electronic Power Supply
• Ideal DC Power Supply Unit performs a number of tasks:
• It changes (reduces) the level of supply to a value suitable for
driving the load circuit (Transformer).
• It produces a DC supply from mains (or line) supply AC sine
wave(Rectifier).
• It prevents any AC from appearing at the supply output (Filter).
• It will ensure that output voltage is kept at constant level,
independent of changes (Regulator).

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Electronic Power Supply stages
• A typical power supply consists of four sections:
• the transformer,
• the rectifier,
• the filter, and
• the voltage regulator.

Basic Block Diagram Power Supply

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Power Supply voltage waveforms

Voltage wave forms in Power supply

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The Transformer
• It is used:
• To stepping up/down the
input ac power

• Electrical Isolation of primary

and secondary circuits

Typical Input Transformer

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Rectifier Circuits
• Rectifiers are used to convert alternating current (AC) into
direct current (DC).
• Rectifiers are found in all dc power supplies that operate from
an AC voltage source.
• Rectifiers are designed using diode(s) (D) and load resistor(s)
(RL).

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Rectifier Circuits
• There are two major types of rectifier circuits:
1. Half-Wave Rectifier
2. Full-Wave Rectifier
a) center-taped transformer (bi-phase) rectifier
b) bridge rectifier

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Half-wave rectifier
• It uses a single diode
• Current flow is only for half cycle of input voltage
• when the diode is forward biased (positive input).
• There will be no current flow and no output voltage
• if the input pulse becomes negative, then the diode will be
reverse biased.

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Half-wave rectifier circuits

Half-wave rectifier with different Inputs and Output waveforms

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Half-wave rectification
• VDCav = 0.637 * Vpk
• VDCav( half-cycle)
= 0.637 * Vpk/2
= 0.318 Vpk

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Half-wave rectification
• Output is a pulsating DC not perfect DC
• Frequency of output ripple is the same as the input.
• There is 0.7V barrier drop across diode junction

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Full-wave rectifier
• The most commonly used type in dc power supplies.
• Current flows during both cycles of the input ac.
• This makes the pulsating dc output easier to filter

Full-wave rectification

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Full-wave rectifier
• The average DC output voltage is twice that of half-wave.
• VAVG is approximately 63.7% of Vpk for a full-wave rectified
voltage.

• The output voltage frequency is twice the input frequency

(fout= 2 * fin) and
• pulsates every half-cycle of the input.

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Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier
• Also called Bi-phase type of full-wave rectifier
• It uses two diodes and a center-tapped Transformer in the
secondary.

A center-tapped full-wave rectifier

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Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation-1
• Current flows through RL in the same direction during both
half cycles.

Basic operation of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier

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Center-Tapped Full-Wave Rectifier Operation-2

Basic operation of a center-tapped full-wave rectifier

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Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier
• It uses four diodes arranged in
a bridge circuit
• The two diodes (in series) are
conducting at one time.

The Bridge Rectifier circuit

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Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation-1
• Current Flow on the
Positive Half Cycle
• D2 & D3 are forward-
biased & conduct
current.

Operation of a bridge rectifier

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Bridge Full-Wave Rectifier Operation-2
• Current Flow on the
Negative Half Cycle
• D1 & D4 are forward
biased & conduct
current

Operation of a bridge rectifier

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Power Supply Filter Circuits
• Used to reduce the fluctuation or pulsating ripple present in
the output of the rectifier.
• produces a constant-level dc voltage
• mostly implemented with capacitors.
• The small amount of fluctuation in the filter output voltage is
called ripple.

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Filter Circuits

Power supply filtering

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Types of Power Supply filters
• Four types of filter circuits depending on the filtering
components:
• Capacitor-input filter
• Inductor-input filter
• Inductor-Capacitor Filter (LC filter)
• Resistor-Capacitor filter (RC Filter)

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Capacitor-Input Filter
• The capacitor is also called the
Reservoir Capacitor
• It acts as temporary storage
output current
• It will release (discharge) this
energy when the charging
voltage is reduced or removed

The Reservoir Capacitor Circuit & Action

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Capacitor-Input Filter
• Capacitor connected from
the rectifier output to
ground.
• RL represents the
equivalent resistance of a
load.

Operation of half-wave rectifier with a

capacitor-input filter
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Inductor-Input Filter
• Inductor opposes a change in current flow through it.
• RL represents the equivalent resistance of a load.

Inductor-input filter circuit and its operation

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AC Ripple Voltage
• Ripple Factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the
filter

• Vr(pp) is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and

• VDC is the dc (average) value of the filter’s output voltage
• The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter.
• The ripple factor can be lowered by
• increasing the value of the filter capacitor or
• increasing the load resistance.
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AC Ripple Voltage

Comparison of ripple voltages for half-wave and full-wave rectified

voltages
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RC Filter Circuits
• R1 and C1, which act as
a filter to remove the
ripple.
• In effect, R1 & C1 act
like a potential/ voltage
divider.

Half-wave rectifier circuit with

RC smoothing filter
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RC Filter Circuits

Full-wave rectifier with RC filter

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LC (π)Filter Circuits
• The inductor, L1, reduces the voltage drop
across it more than RC filter.
• At the ripple frequency,
• L1 exhibits a high value of inductive
reactance
• while C1 exhibits a low value of capacitive Half-wave rectifier with LC (π) filter
reactance.
• The combined effect is that of an attenuator
• which greatly reduces the amplitude of the
ripple while having a negligible effect on the
direct voltage.
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Voltage Regulator Circuits
• It maintains a constant
output voltage
(current)despite changes in:
• the input voltage,
• the load current due to load
resistor, or Voltage regulator with input and
• the temperature. output capacitors

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Voltage Regulator Circuits
• The use of bleeder resistor (a safety device) has little effect on voltage
regulation.
• The use of active devices regulate the voltage by varying their current flow
as the load changes resistance.
• 100 % regulation is impossible.
• The regulating devices can be connected in series or in parallel with the
load.
• So we have two voltage regulator types:
• shunt regulator and
• series regulator
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Shunt Type Voltage Regulator (Using Zener Diode)
• The regulator is in parallel with the load.
• The Zener diode produce a stable reference voltage across the
load

Shunt voltage regulator using zener diode

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Applications of Power Supply in Avionics Systems-1
• The solid-state power supply is well suited for different
aircraft applications like:
• power control and protection,
• power regulation,
• transformer rectifier unit (TRU),
• AC-DC conversion,
• power supply circuits for aircraft systems LRUs, and
• Indicators & lighting like driving LEDs in aviation applications.

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Lesson Summary
• All electronic circuits need dc power to operate.
• So the cheap & easily available AC should be converted to DC
using power supply.
• A typical power supply circuit has four circuit sections; the
transformer, the rectifier, the filter and the voltage regulator.

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Progress Test 2.1
1. Why should we have to convert AC source to DC source?
2. Explain the main sections of a typical power supply circuit.
3. What are the function and operation of rectifier circuit in power
supplies?
4. Why should we use filter circuits in power supplies?
5. Explain the purpose of voltage regulator circuit in power supply.

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 Lesson 2:
Amplifier Circuits

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Definition of Amplifier
• An amplifier is an electronic device used to increase a small
level input signals to a usable value.
• It enables very small input signal to control bigger output
signal
• It aslo amplifies an input signal to its highest possible output
magnitude.

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Amplifier Model
• It contains amplifying devices, such
as a Transistor, Field Effect
Transistor or Op-amp,
• It has two input terminals and two
output terminals
• It has three main properties Ideal Amplifier Model
• Input Resistance or (Rin),
• Output Resistance or (Rout) and
• Amplification or Gain (A)
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Types of Basic Amplifier Circuit
• There are four basic types:
• Voltage Amplifier- gives higher voltage output
• Current Amplifier- gives higher current output
• Transconductance Amplifier- voltage-to-current converter
• Transresistnace Amplifier - current-to-voltage converter
• Other types are:
• Power amplifier
• Operational Amplifier
• Transistor Amplifier
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Parameters of Basic Amplifier Circuit-1
• Gain: 
• Is the ratio b/n the magnitudes of input and output signals.
• Perhaps it is the most important characteristic/parameter.
• Efficiency:
• Is the ratio b/n the output power and power consumed.
• It is another very important characteristic/parameter.
• Bandwidth: 
• Is the frequency range at which the amplifier can operate.
• Noise: 
• Is the amount of unwanted extra information included in the output.

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Parameters of Basic Amplifier Circuit-2
• Slew Rate: 
• Is the maximum rate of change of output.
• Linearity:
• Is the degree of proportionality b/n input and output signals.
• Stability:
• Is the ability to provide constant and reliable output,
• it is the ability to avoid self-oscillation
• Output Dynamic Range: 
• Is the ratio b/n the largest and smallest useful output levels.

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Characteristics of Basic Amplifier Circuit
• The three important characteristics, an amplifier circuit must
have are:
• high input impedance (Zin),
• low output impedance (Zout) and
• some degree of bandwidth (BW).
• The ideal or “perfect” amplifier will have infinite input
impedance and zero output impedance.

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Amplifier Gain
• Measures the ability of amplifying a signal
Gain, A =
• Three different kinds of amplifier gain are:

Amplifier Gain of the Input Signal

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decibel Gain-1
• Decibel is the logarithmic unit of Gain.
• Gain in decibel scale = 10log().
• The gain of the amplifier in Decibels or dB is:
•  Voltage Gain in dB:    av  =  20 log Av
•   Current Gain in dB:    ai  =  20 log Ai
•   Power Gain in dB:      ap  =  10 log Ap

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decibel Gain-2
• Advantage of dB
• It is very simple to calculate the overall gain simply by adding
and subtracting the numerical values.
• Positive (+) is gain and Negative (-) is loss.
• E.g. Calculate the overall gain of the system given below.

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Amplifier types based on Gain
• Amplifiers subdivided into two depending on their
power/voltage gain:
• Small signal amplifiers- amplify very small voltage signals
• Also called Voltage amplifiers
• pre-amplifiers,
• instrumentation amplifiers etc.
• Large signal amplifiers- amplify large input voltage signals
• Also called power amplifiers
• audio power amplifiers or
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Amplifier Efficiency
• Efficiency (ŋ) is the ratio of power out to power in.

• Perfect or ideal amplifier will give efficiency of 100%.

• In reality, this can never happen:
• due to power loss in the form of heat and
• amplifier itself consumes power during the amplification process.

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Amplifier Resistance/Impedance
• Input Resistance/Impedance (Rin or Zin)
• is the ratio of input voltage to input current
• is the input impedance “seen” by the source
driving the input.
• Output resistance/Impedance (Rout or Zout)
• Is the ratio of open-circuit output voltage to
short-circuit output current
• the load sees “looking back” into the amplifier
Amplifier Input and output
when the input is zero.
resistances

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Frequency response of Amplifier
• Is the graphical sketch(Bode plot) of magnitude (gain) against
frequency (ƒ).
• It is usually specified in terms of the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies.

Frequency response different amplifier types

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Bandwidth of Amplifier
• is the difference b/n the upper and
lower cut-off frequencies.

• The cut-off frequency points

• are the -3dB (decibel) points.
• are the amount of output power
Frequency response and bandwidth
delivered to the load is effectively (output power plotted against frequency)
“halved” (0.5Pmax).

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Amplifier Distortion
• Amplifiers multiply the input signal by constant factor (gain).
• But the resultant output signal may not be an exact reproduction of
the original input signal waveform
• So the amplifier will suffer from what is commonly called
Amplifier Distortion.
• Distortion of the output signal may occur due to:
• Incorrect biasing levels.
• Too large input signal
• Nonlinear input signal over entire frequency range
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Amplifier Distortion
• The distortion can be:
• Amplitude distortion
• Frequency distortion
• Phase distortion
Amplitude Distortion due to incorrect biasing
• Crossover Distortion

Frequency Distortion due to Harmonics

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Amplifier Distortion

Phase Distortion due to Delay Crossover Distortion Waveform

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Linearity of Amplifier
• Is the ability to produce signals that are accurate copies of the input,
generally at increased levels.
• Linear amplifier-
• output signal is directly proportional to its input signal.
• provides amplification of a signal without any distortion
• Radio frequency (RF) power amplifier, and in amateur radio.
• Classes A, AB1, AB2 and B can be designed linear.
• Non-linear amplifier-
• output signal is not directly proportional to the input signal.
• Class-C amplifiers are not linear in any topology

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Amplifier Topology-1
• Amplifier are divided into two topologies depending of the
number of amplifying devices (BJT, FET,op-amp etc) used
as:
• Single-Ended amplifiers
• Push-pull amplifiers

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Amplifier Topology-2
• Single-Ended Amplifier
• requires only one amplifying device
• but can include multiple devices in parallel.
• take a single input and produce a single output
• all single ended amplifiers are class A;
• only class A amplifiers can be single ended.
• Audio Preamps are generally single ended and thus must be class
A.

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Amplifier Topology-3
• Push-Pull Amplifier
• require two identical amplifying devices, or pairs of devices.
• one sourcing current through the load
• while the other one sinking the current from the load.
• has an output stage that can drive a current in either direction through
the load.
• Push-pull amplifiers can be class A, AB, B, C, etc.

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Amplifier Topology-4
• Push-Pull Amplifier …
• It operates as:
the signal to be amplified is first split into
two identical signals but 180° out of
phase.
• Push pull amplifiers are commonly used in
situations where
• low distortion, Push-Pull Amplifier
• high efficiency and
• high output power are required.
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Linear Amplifier
• Its output signal is directly proportional to its input signal.

An amplifier with voltage-divider bias driven

by an AC voltage source Graphical ac load line operation of the
amplifier bout their dc Q-point values

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The Non-Linear Amplifier
• Nonlinear circuits generally cause
distortion
• Occurs in amplitude modulation
(AM) wireless transmission and
high-fidelity (hi-fi) audio.

Examples of nonlinearity

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 Basic BJT Amplifier Configurations
• There are three BJT amplifiers based on circuit
configurations:
A. Common Base Amplifier
B. Common Emitter Amplifier
C. Common Collector Amplifier

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Common-Base Amplifier
• CB amplifier has:
• High voltage gain

• Unity current gain

Ai ≈ 1
• High power gain
AP ≈ Av
• low input resistance
Common-base amplifier with voltage-
• high output resistance divider bias
• Used for voltage amplification

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Common-Emitter Amplifier
• CE Amplifier has:
• High voltage gain
• High current gain
• High power gain
• 180° phase inversion
• Used for voltage amplification

A common-emitter amplifier

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Common Collector Amplifier or emitter-follower
• CC amplifier has:
• Unity voltage gain
Av ≈ 1
• High current gain

• High Power gain

Emitter-follower with voltage-divider bias

• high input resistance
• Used as a buffer, current driver &
impedance matching
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Classification of Amplifier Based on Biasing Condition
• There are four main class of operation of transistor amplifiers
based on biasing conditions:
• Class “A” Amplifier
• Class “B” Amplifier
• Class “AB” Amplifier and
• Class “C” Amplifier
• Each class of operation has certain use & characteristic.
• The best use of an amplifier is a matter of proper selection for the
particular operation desired.
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Amplifier Load Line
• It is a straight line drawn using Ic as vertical axis and Vce as
horizontal axis.
• Used to determine the operating point (Q) at certain instant
• Q-point is the point at which the transistor can be set to operate.
• To draw a load line it is necessary to know:
• the supply voltage Vcc that sets the lower end of the load line on the
horizontal axis and
• the load resistor RL or RC.
• Vce= VCC- ICRC , where, IC= βDCIB

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Amplifier Load Line

Amplifier Load line

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Class “A” Amplifier
• Has low signal distortion levels
• Simple design
• Quite stable
• Highest linearity
• Low efficiency around the
vicinity of 25-50%, but best
fidelity
Class A amplifier
• High heat output during
operation

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Class “B” Amplifier-1
• Uses 2 complementary
transistors
• Much higher efficiency, around
75-78.5%
• Lesser heat output
• Stable and reliable
• Requires at least 0.7V to start
conducting
Class B amplifier
• Combines 2 half cycles to form
one full cycle
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Class “B” Amplifier-2

Class B Push-pull amplifier Class B Push-Pull Transformerless

Amplifier Output Stage

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Class “AB” Amplifier
• Uses 2 transistors that work
together
• Combines Class A and Class
B characteristics
• No crossover distortion
• Fairly efficient, at around
50-60%
• Most common in audio
amplifier design Class AB amplifier

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Class “C” Amplifier
• Least linear among power
amplifiers
• Very high efficiency of around
80-90%
• High output distortion
• Two operating modes, tuned
and untuned
• Low power dissipation
Class C amplifier

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Amplifier Classes Summary-1

Amplifier Classes and Efficiency

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Amplifier Classes Summary-2
Class A Class AB Class B Class C
Efficiency 50 % Between classes A 78.5 % 100% theoretically
&B 85 % practically
Conduction 3600 Between classes A & 1800 Approx. 900
angle B
Distortion Low Moderate High Extremely High
Bias Forward Forward Zero Reverse (beyond
(Emitter-Base) (center of (near cutoff) (at cutoff) cutoff)
load line)
Application Practically High power stage in High power stage
Generally limited to RF
all small both audio and RF Not used in audio
signal amplifier due to application application.
distortion
amplifiers

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Amplifier Classes by Conduction Angle
Amplifier Class Description Conduction Angle

Full cycle 360o of

Class-A θ = 2π
Conduction
Half cycle 180o of
Class-B θ = π
Conduction
Slightly more than
Class-AB π < θ < 2π
180o of conduction
Slightly less than
Class-C θ < π
180o of conduction
ON-OFF non-linear
Class-D to T θ = 0
switching
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Multi-stage Amplifiers
• A multi-stage amplifier-
• is the connection of more amplifier stages together to get more gain.
• B/c a single transistor or integrated circuit may be insufficient to
provide the amount of gain required in a circuit.
• Basically, we have two categories of interconnections of stages:
• Cascaded- Each stage and types of inter-stage coupling used are
similar.
• Compound- Each stage may be different & different types of
coupling used.

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Multi-stage Amplifiers

A multi-stage amplifier

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Amplifier Signal Coupling
• Coupling
• is used to transfer a signal from one stage on an amplifier to another
stage.
• is the process of transferring the energy between circuits.
• There are four methods of signal coupling
• RC coupling
• Transformer Coupling
• Direct Coupling
• Impedance (LC)Coupling
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RC Coupling
• Is the most common method
of coupling
• uses a coupling capacitor and
signal developing resistors.
• It allows for the bias DC
voltage of each stage to be
blocked,
• while the AC signal is passed
to the next stage. Typical RC coupled amplifi­er

PPT2.101 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Impedance (L-C) Coupling
• It uses coil (inductor) as a
load only for the first stage
• Otherwise similar to RC
coupling
• It is most effective at high
frequencies.

Typical Impedance coupled ampli­fier

PPT2.102 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Transformer Coupling
• It uses a transformer to couple
the signal from one stage to
the next.
• It is very efficient and
• the transformer can aid in
impedance matching.

Typical transformer coupled amplifi­er

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Direct Coupling
• It is the easiest method to understand
• the output of one stage is connected
directly to the input of the following
stage.
• It uses the least number of circuit
elements
• It provides a good frequency response
• Bad for impedance matching and
stability
Typical Direct coupled amplifi­er
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Amplifier Classification Based on Their Functions
• All amplifiers are current-control devices.
• Amplifiers are classified by function as:
• Voltage amplifier
• Driver Amplifier
• Power Amplifier

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Voltage Amplifier
• Is an amplifier in which the output
signal voltage is larger than the input
signal voltage
• It provides voltage amplification of Block diagram of Voltage
the input signal. Amplifier

• It has voltage gain (output is larger

than input signal voltage)

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Power Amplifier
• Is an amplifier in which the output signal
power is greater than the input signal
power.
• It provide power amplification of the
input signal. Block diagram of Power
• It has no voltage gain (Av=1) Amplifier

• Most power amplifiers are used:

• as the final amplifier (stage of amplification)
and
• to control (or drive) the output device
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Driver (Buffer) Amplifier
• It is one that provides electrical
impedance transformation from one
circuit to another.
• with the aim of the signal source being
unaffected by ("buffered from") whatever
currents (voltages, for a current buffer) that
the load may produce.
• Two main types of buffers exist:
• the voltage buffer and
• the current buffer.
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Current Amplifier
• It is a circuit which amplifies the
input current by a fixed factor and
feeds it to the succeeding circuit.
• A current amplifier can be realized
using transistors.

Current amplifier using transistors

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Amplifier Operating Frequencies
• Amplifiers are also classified by frequency response.
• The frequency response of an amplifier can be described by
classifying the amplifier as :
• Audio amplifier (range of 15 Hz to 20 kHz)
• RF amplifier (range of 10 kHz to 100,000 MHz.), or
• Video (wide-band) amplifier (10 Hz to 6 MHz).

PPT2.110 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Audio Frequency Amplifier
• It is designed to amplify frequencies b/n 15Hz & 20kHz
• It amplify and buffer audio signals to drive a low impedance,
inductive speaker load.
• They are used in high-powered audio systems, loudspeakers,
headphones and microphones.

Block diagram
of Audio
Amplifier

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Radio Frequency Amplifier
• RF Amplifier
• is designed to amplify frequencies between 10 kHz & 100,000 MHz
• a single amplifier will not amplify the entire RF range
• So they have to be very selective using tuning circuit at the input and
output sides.
• In the RF range selection of electrical components is also very
decisive because
• Capacitor offer low reactance at higher frequency
• Inductor offer high reactance at high frequency
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Radio Frequency Amplifier
• Intermediate frequency (IF) Amplifier
• is a special type of RF amplifier operating in a radio
frequency range but have fixed tuned circuit.
• is designed to respond for a single frequency and that will be
set by selecting the right capacitance and inductance values
through tuning.
• Typically used in superhetrodyne receiver.

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Video Frequency Amplifier
• Video Amplifier
• is designed to amplify a band of frequencies from 10 Hz to 6MHz.
• sometimes called wide-band amplifiers.
• will amplify a very wide band (range) of frequencies
• requires a great many more components than narrow-band
amplifiers
• Wide frequency response is obtained by using low capacitance
(low frequency) transistors and special wiring techniques.
• In order to get wide response we have to lose gain.
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Applications of Amplifiers in Avionics Systems
• Audio power amplifiers
• used to drive loudspeakers in aircraft communication & passenger addressing
• RF power amplifier
• used in aircraft communication transmitter final stages for modulation and
demodulation audio frequency
• Low-Noise Amplifier-
• used for SATCOM antenna diplexer
• Servo motor controllers
• Used to amplify a control voltage in aircraft instruments.

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Lesson Summary
• Amplifier amplifies an input signal to its highest possible
output magnitude.
• Amplifier has different important characteristics.
• Amplifiers are designed using amplifying devices like BJT,
FET,Op-amp IC, etc.
• Amplifiers can be classified based on different methods.
• Amplifiers can be linear or non-linear type.

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Progress Test 2.2
1. What characteristics will have the ideal or perfect amplifier?
2. List some of the basic BJT amplifier circuit parameters.
3. Explain single-ended and push-pull amplifiers.
4. Explain the main classes of operation of transistor amplifiers
5. In which class of amplifier is crossover distortion more
common?
6. Which signal coupling method is most effective at high
frequencies?

PPT2.117 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

 Lesson 3:
Integrated Circuits

PPT2.118 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Introduction-1
• An IC can function as an amplifier, oscillator, timer, counter,
computer memory, or microprocessor.
• They come in all sorts of flavors:
• single-circuit logic gates, op amps, 555 timers, voltage regulators,
motor controllers, microcontrollers, microprocessors, field-
programmable gate arrays (FPGAs)…
• The development of IC technology has made it possible to
fabricate large numbers of electronic components onto a single
silicon chip.
PPT2.120 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Introduction-3
• So they have
advantages of:
• Small physical size.
• Cost savings
• Low power
consumption and
• High performance
Integrated circuits

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Differential Amplifier
• Diff-Amp is used to
• amplify the difference b/n the voltages applied at its inputs.
• reject/suppress the average or common mode value of the two inputs.
• It is the building block of analog integrated circuits
and operational amplifiers (op-amp).
• It tends to reject or nullify the part of input signals which is
common to both inputs.
• This provides very good noise immunity in a lot of applications.

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Differential Amplifier
• Ideally, Vo

where A is the gain of

the amplifier.
• Practically, Block diagram of a
differential amplifier

 Ad  is the differential gain.

Ac is called the common-mode gain of the amplifier.

PPT2.182 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier
• Based on the amplifying devices, Differential Amplifier circuits
can be of two types:
• Differential amplifiers built using transistors,(BJTs or FETs)
• Differential amplifiers built using Op-Amps.

PPT2.183 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier using Transistor
• The simplest form can be constructed using BJTs.
• It is constructed using two matching transistors in common
emitter configuration whose emitters are tied together.
• Diff-Amp has:
• two inputs and
• two outputs.

PPT2.184 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier using Transistors

BJT Differential Amplifier circuit diagram

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Differential Amplifier using Transistors
• Differential Amplifier Configurations
• Based on the methods of providing input and taking output, we can
have four different configurations:
1. Single Input Unbalanced Output
2. Single Input Balanced Output
3. Dual Input Unbalanced Output
4. Dual Input Balanced Output

PPT2.186 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier using Transistors
1. Single Input Unbalanced Output
• only one input signal is given and
• the output is taken from only one of the two
collectors with respect to ground

PPT2.187 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier using Transistors
2. Single Input balanced Output
• only one input signal is given and
• the output is taken from both collectors.

Vo = Vo1 – Vo2

PPT2.188 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier using Transistors
3. Dual Input unbalanced Output
• Both inputs are given i.e, differential input
but
• the output is taken from only one of the two
collectors with respect to ground

PPT2.189 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier using Transistors
4. Dual Input balanced Output
• Both inputs are given i.e, differential input
and
• the output is taken from both collectors with
respect to ground

Vo = Ad(Vin1 – Vin2)
Where Ad = differential gain
Vin1, Vin2 = input voltages

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Differential Amplifier using Transistors
• Differential amplifier has two Mode of Operation
1. Differential Mode
• the two input voltages change in opposite directions,
• the two outputs oppose each other
• the emitter voltage follows the input voltage variations;
• there is a full negative feedback and the gain is minimum. 
2. Common mode
• (the two input voltages change in the same directions),
• the emitter voltage is fixed (equal to the instant common input voltage);
• there is no negative feedback and the gain is maximum.
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Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
• Dual input balanced output diff-amp should suppress the
common signals present at its inputs.
• Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)
• Is the ability of a diff-amp to reject common mode signal
• usually defined as the ratio between differential-mode gain and
common-mode gain
• indicates the ability to accurately cancel voltages that are common to
both inputs.
in DB

PPT2.192 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier Using OP-Amp
• Diff-Amp is just a combination of inverting and non-inverting
amplifier.
• So output is the sum of the output voltages produced by the both
Op-Amp circuits as:

• Now, if R1 = R2 and R3 = Rf, then

• The gain of the amplifier will be A=

PPT2.193 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier Using OP-Amp
• Diff-Amp can be constructed using
one or more op-amps
• Op-amp only responds to the
difference b/n the voltages on its
two input terminals
• Output voltage given by:

• But in reality,

PPT2.194 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Differential Amplifier Using 2 OP-Amps
• Diff-amp with two op-amps has increased overall gain.
• Overall output
voltage,Vo is:

• Overall voltage
gain, Av is:

Diff-amp using two op-amps

PPT2.195 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Operational Amplifiers
• Op-Amp is designed to be used with other circuit components
to perform either
• computing functions (addition, subtraction) or
• some type of transfer operation, such as filtering.
• Op-amps are usually high-gain amplifiers with the amount of
gain determined by feedback.
• It has two: a positive and negative inputs,
• but a single output with very high gain

PPT2.196 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Description of Op-Amp-1
• Op-Amp is
• DC-coupled voltage amplifier with very high voltage gain.
• basically a multistage amplifier.
• basically a “Differential” voltage amplifier
• packed in a small package and is available in the Integrated Circuit (IC)
form.
• In integrated circuit form is no more expensive and readily available
"building block" for many devices.
• Example is the very popular IC 741.

PPT2.197 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Description of Op-Amp-2
• Three most important characteristics of op-amp are:
• Very high gain
• Very high input impedance
• Very low output impedance

Schematic symbols of Operational Amplifier

PPT2.198 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Description of Op-Amp-3

Op-Amp IC 741 Symbols & circuit

PPT2.199 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Operation of Op-Amp
• Is basically a “Differential” voltage
amplifier
• It amplifies the difference between
input voltages V1 and V2.
• Three situations are possible:
1. If V2 > V1 then VO is positive. Operational Amplifier
2. If V2 < V1 then VO is negative.
3. If V2 = V1 then VO is zero.
PPT2.200 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Op-Amp Parameters & Idealized Characteristics-1
• Open Loop Voltage Gain, (AVOL)= Vout/Vin= 20 log10 (Vout/Vin) in dB
• Ideally, AVOL is Infinite ( but mostly 90dB or more)
• Closed-loop voltage gain (AVCL)= Vout/Vin with –Ve feedback
• The AVCL is normally very much less than the AVOL
• Input impedance, (ZIN)= Vin/Iin
• Ideally, ZIN is Infinite (ranges from 2M for BJT Op-amp to >10 12 for CMOS
devices)
• Output impedance, (ZOUT)= VOUT(OC)/IOUT(SC)
• ZOUT is Zero ideally, real op-amps have 100-20kΩ range.

PPT2.201 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amp Parameters & Idealized Characteristics-2
• Bandwidth, (BW)= fH-fL
• Ideally Bandwidth is Infinite, but practically it ranges from 10 kHz to
over 1MHz for some high-speed devices.
• Output Offset Voltage, (Vof) due to imbalance of inputs voltage
• Ideally Vof is Zero, but real op-amps have some output offset voltage 
• Input offset voltage(Vif)-is the differential applied input in order to make
the output voltage exactly zero.
• Ideally Vif is Zero, but is ranges from 1V to 15 mV.

PPT2.202 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amp Parameters & Idealized Characteristics-3
• Slew rate= ∆VOUT / ∆t (measured in volts/second)
• typical values range from 0.2V/μs to over 20V/μs.

Slew rate for an operational amplifier

PPT2.203 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amp Parameters & Idealized Characteristics-4
• The
“ideal” op-amp characteristics can be
summarized as:
• The open-loop voltage gain should be very
high (ideally infinite).
• The input resistance should be very high
(ideally infinite).
• The output resistance should be very low
(ideally zero).
• Full-power bandwidth should be as wide as
possible.
• Slew rate should be as large as possible.
•
PPT2.204Input offset should be as small
ET-AV02:as possible.
:Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Op-Amp Parameters & Idealized Characteristics-5
• From the op-amp “idealized” characteristics,
• we can see that the input resistance is infinite,
• so no current flows into either input terminal (the “current
rule”) and
• that the differential input offset voltage is zero (the
“voltage rule”).
• These two properties will help us to understand the workings of
the Operational Amplifier 

PPT2.205 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amp Input Modes-1
• Op-Amp has two input terminals called:
1. Inverting terminal- marked as negative (-)
2. Non-inverting terminal- marked as positive (+)
• Op-amp has one output terminal
• Op-amp has also two power supplies : (+VCC) and(−VEE).
• There are three stages within the op-amp circuit:
1. Differential amplifier- input stage –provide high input impedance
2. Voltage amplifier-second stage- provide high gain
3. Output amplifier-final stage-emitter-follower- provides low output
impedance.
PPT2.206 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Op-Amp Input Modes-2
•

Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier

PPT2.207 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Closed-Loop Operation of Op-Amp
• The op-amp operation is determined by whether or not
feedback is used.
• Without feedback - open-loop operation.
• E.g. only op-amp comparator
• With feedback – closed-loop operation
• E.g. Most op-amps are used
• Op-amps are used with degenerative (or negative) feedback
• which reduces the gain
• but greatly increases the stability
PPT2.208 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Closed-Loop Operation of Op-Amp
• This degenerative feedback opposes the effects of the inverting and
non-inverting inputs and keeps them at the same potential.

Op-amp with negative feedback applied

PPT2.209 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Positive versus negative feedback
• For negative feedback,
• the feedback voltage is in “anti-phase” to the input
• the overall gain of the amplifier is reduced.
• used in order to stabilize the gain
• also to increase the frequency response
• For positive feedback,
• the feedback voltage is in “Phase” with the input
• the overall gain of the amplifier is increased.
• the bandwidth is reduced.
• In most cases this will result in instability and oscillation.
PPT2.210 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Basic Operational amplifier configurations
• Closed-loop op-amp circuits have two basic configurations:
• Inverting op-amplifier configuration
• the input voltage signal, (Vin ) is applied directly to the inverting
(-) input terminal
• the most common one,
• Non-inverting op-amplifier configuration.
• the input voltage signal, (Vin ) is applied directly to the non-
inverting (+) input terminal

PPT2.211 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Inverting Op-Amp configuration-1
• Inverting Op-Amp
• is connected with negative feedback
• produce 1800 “out-of-phase” output
signal with the input
• Vin  is applied directly to the inverting
(-) input terminal

PPT2.212 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Inverting Op-Amp configuration-2
• Op-Amps have two very important
rules:
1. No Current Flows into the Input
Terminals
2. The Differential Input Voltage
(VDIFF) is Zero as V1 = V2 = 0
• The summing junction (X) is
called Virtual Earth

PPT2.213 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Inverting Op-Amp configuration-3
• By these two rules, the closed-loop gain
of inverting amplifier is:

• The output voltage Vout is:

• The minus (-) sign shows the inversion

of the output due to negative feedback.

PPT2.214 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Inverting Op-Amp configuration-4
• If the two resistors are of equal value, Rin= Rƒ, then
• The gain will be Av= -1, and Vout =-Vin
• This type of inverting amplifier configuration is called a Unity Gain
Inverter of simply an Inverting Buffer.
• By connecting the output directly back to the negative input
terminal,
• 100% feedback is achieved resulting in a Voltage Follower (buffer) circuit
with a constant gain of 1 (Unity).
• Changing the fixed feedback resistor (Rƒ) for a Potentiometer, the
circuit will have Adjustable Gain.
PPT2.215 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Non-Inverting Op-Amp Configuration-1
• The input signal, (Vin ) is applied
directly to the non-inverting (+)
input terminal
• the output signal is “in-phase”
with the input signal.
• the output gain of the amplifier
becomes “Positive” in value

PPT2.216 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Non-Inverting Op-Amp Configuration-2
• The closed-loop voltage gain (A V) is:

• The overall closed-loop gain of a non-

inverting amplifier will always be
greater but never less than one (unity),
• it is positive in nature and
• it is determined by the ratio of the
values of Rƒ and R2.
PPT2.217 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Non-Inverting Op-Amp Configuration-3
• We can easily convert
• an inverting op-amp
configuration into a non-
inverting amplifier
configuration by simply
changing the input
connections

Inverting Op-Amp converted to Non-

Inverting Op-Amp

PPT2.218 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amps Gain & Bandwidth-1
• The open-loop gain varies
with frequency
• Gain Bandwidth Product is
constant at any point along
the curve.
• GBP = Gain x Bandwidth
= A x BW

Open-loop frequency
response curve

PPT2.219 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amps Gain & Bandwidth-2
• The closed-loop gain is not affected
by frequency change.
• The use of degenerative feedback
increases the bandwidth .

Closed-loop frequency-response curve for

gain of 100
PPT2.220 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Op-Amps Gain & Bandwidth-3
• Op-amps bandwidth is the
frequency range over which the
voltage gain is above 70.7% or
-3dB of its maximum output
value
• (where 0dB is the maximum)
• -3dB corner frequency is a
half-power (0.5P) point Bandwidth curve

PPT2.221 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Op-Amps Gain & Bandwidth-4
• Op-amps bandwidth is inversely proportional
to its gain,
• (A 1/∝ BW)
• GAIN-BANDWIDTH PRODUCT
(GAIN × BANDWIDTH)=UNITY GAIN
POINT
• E.g. the (gain × bandwidth) product of the
table is:
AV x BW=1× 106 Hz (i.e. 1 MHz).

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Applications of Op-Amps Circuits
• Op-amps have so many applications.
• Some of the applications in modern aircraft are:
• Go/No-Go detectors, Square wave circuits, Non-inverting amplifier,
Inverting amplifier, Half-wave rectifier.
• Some of the common applications of the operational amplifier are:
• the summing amplifier (adder), buffers
• difference amplifier (subtractor),
• comparator, integrator and differentiator

PPT2.223 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Summing Amplifier
• Is a voltage adder

or

• If all resistors are the same

VOUT = − (V1 + V2 + V3)

PPT2.224 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Summing Amplifier

Typical input and output

waveforms for a summing
amplifier

PPT2.225 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Difference Amplifier (Subtractor)
• It amplify the difference b/n two
input voltages
• Vout is:

• If resistors, R1= R2 and R3= R4

PPT2.226 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Comparator Amplifier
• compares the magnitudes of two
voltage inputs (one used as
reference VREF)and
• determines which is the largest of
the two.
• If VIN >VREF then VOUT = +VCC
• If VIN < VREF then VOUT = -VCC

Op-Amp Comparator circuit

PPT2.228 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Comparator Amplifier
• produce binary outputs
• So commonly used to interface with
digital logic circuits and
• are building blocks of most analog
to digital converters (ADC). 

Typical input and output waveforms for a

comparator
PPT2.229 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Integrator Amplifier
• produces an output voltage
which is proportional to the
integral of the input voltage.
• output is determined by the
length of time a voltage is
present at its input
Op-Amp Integrator circuit

PPT2.230 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Integrator Amplifier
• It is used as a Ramp
Generator and the transfer
function
• the capacitor will charge and
discharge in response to
changes in the input signal.

Op-amp Integrator Ramp Generator

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Differentiator Amplifier
• produces a voltage output which is
directly proportional to the input
voltage’s rate-of-change with
respect to time“
• the position of the capacitor and
resistor have been reversed
• At low freq, low gain (Rf/Xc), low Op-Amp Differentiator circuit
output voltage & vice versa.

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Differentiator Amplifier
• It has two drawbacks:
• it suffers from instability at high
frequencies
• the capacitive input makes it very
susceptible to random noise
signals
• Both integrator and differentiator
are affected by the RC time
constant
Typical input and output
waveforms for a differentiator
PPT2.233 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Differentiator Amplifier

Op-amp Differentiator
Waveforms

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Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer)
• Is also called “unity gain buffer”
•  Rƒ = 0), and R2 = ∞,
• so it has fixed gain Av=1
• It is used for impedance matching or
circuit isolation
• The output voltage is equal to input:
Vout=Vin.

PPT2.236 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Voltage Follower (Unity Gain Buffer)
• Both input and output waveforms are
in-phase
• They are identical in amplitude

Typical input and output waveforms for a

voltage follower
PPT2.237 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Lesson Summary
• An IC is a collection of electronic components resistors, transistors,
capacitors, etc.
• ICs have different integration scales, types & fabrication steps.
• IC are small in size, high speed, consume very small power.
• Differential amplifier amplify the difference b/n the inputs voltages and
reject the average or common mode value.
• Operational-amplifier is a very high gain DC differential amplifier .
• Op-amps have different characteristics and input modes, basic
configurations and application circuits.

PPT2.239 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Progress Test 2.3
1. Why should we use integrated circuits in modern electronics?
2. Explain the modes of operation of differential amplifier.
3. What are the ideal characteristics of operational amplifier?
4. Explain the basic configurations of op-amp circuit.
5. Discuss the applications of op-amp circuits

PPT2.240 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

 Lesson 4:
Oscillator Circuits

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Oscillator Introduction
• Electronic oscillator 
• is an electronic circuit that produces a periodic, oscillating electronic
signal, often a sine wave or a square wave.
• Is designed specifically to produce electrical oscillation.
• converts DC) to AC signal.
• is an electronic source of voltage having sine, square, triangular or pulse
wave shapes
• generates AC without requiring any AC input signal
• They are widely used in many electronic circuits and systems devices
providing the central “clock” signal.
PPT2.242 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0
Characteristics of electronic Oscillators
• It requires an active amplifying device such as transistor, FET,
vacuum tube, or OPAMP to replace any loss in the circuit
• A positive feedback is required to sustain the oscillation
• A frequency determining network is required to set the desired
frequency of oscillation
• The oscillation has to be self-starting , with no input signal

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Oscillators area applications
• Some of the oscillators applications in avionics are:
• In transmitter as carrier frequency generator
• In a receiver as a local oscillator
• In signal generators
• As a clock signal in computers, etc…

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Oscillation Principles
• Oscillation can be three types:
• Increasing- more energy is supplied than the lost ( Aβ>1).
• Damping (decaying)-due to energy loss (Aβ< 1)
• Constant Amplitude (supplied energy = lost energy ( Aβ=1)

Different Oscillations
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Oscillation Principles
• Oscillator has three essential
sections:
• An amplifier
• Feedback network
• LC tank circuit.
• So Oscillator is basically,
an Amplifier with “Positive
Basic Oscillator block diagram
Feedback”, or regenerative
feedback (in-phase).

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Barkhausen Criterion for Oscillators
• Certain conditions must be met for an oscillator to be self-starting
and self-sustaining.
• For oscillator to produce its own input signal continuously,
• the product of the amplifier gain (A) and the fractional feedback factor (β)
must equal unity |Aβ|= 1.
• the phase shift around the loop is zero or integer multiple of 2π:
∠βA=2πn, nє0,1,2,…
• This condition is called the Barkhausen criterion.
• Barkhausen's criterion is a necessary condition for oscillation but
not a sufficient condition
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LC tank circuit
• It is frequency determining section
• It is a resonant or tuned circuit
• A capacitor stores energy in the electric
field (E) &
• inductor stores energy in its magnetic
field (B) LC tank circuit
• It is oscillating at its natural resonant
frequency

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Types of Oscillators
• Oscillators are classified based on different parameters considered
as:
A. Based on the Output Waveforms
• Sinusoidal (harmonics or linear) oscillators and
• generates a purely sinusoidal waveform
•are “LC or RC tuned-feedback” type
• Non-sinusoidal (Relaxation) oscillators.
• generate complex non-sinusoidal waveforms (“Square-wave”,
“Triangular-wave” or “Saw-toothed-wave”, “Rectangle-wave” or pulse
shape type waveforms
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Types of Oscillators
B. Based on the Output Frequency
• Low Frequency or audio frequency oscillators and
• generate the oscillations at a range of 20 Hz to 100-200 KHz
which
• RC oscillators are used at low frequency range.
• High Frequency or radio frequency oscillators.
• Used for frequencies more than 200-300 KHz up to gigahertz.
• LC oscillators are used at high frequency range

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Types of Oscillators
C. Based on the type of the Frequency Control Used:
• RC Oscillators,  
•using resistance and capacitor components
• LC Oscillators, and
•using inductor and capacitor components
• Crystal Oscillators
• use a quartz crystal to result in a frequency stabilized output
waveform
• It is based on the frequency determining section

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Types of Oscillators
D. Based on the Usage of Feedback:
• Feedback Oscillators,  
• consisting of feedback network to satisfy the required conditions of
the oscillations
• Most oscillators are feedback type
• Non-feedback type of Oscillators
• the oscillators with absence of feedback network
• Negative resistance oscillators such as tunnel diode,
• E.g. the UJT relaxation oscillator which uses a negative resistance
region of the characteristics of the device.
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Types of Oscillators
E. Based on oscillation starting method:
• Oscillators can be classified based on how the oscillation is started as:
• Triggered Oscillators,  
• Use external pulse for starting oscillation
• Self–excited oscillators:
• Start oscillation as a result of disturbance in the oscillator circuit.

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Types of Oscillators
F. Based on the Nature of the Frequency of Output
Waveform: 
• Fixed Frequency Oscillators and
• Has fixed oscillation frequency
• Mostly crystal oscillators
• Variable or Tunable Frequency Oscillators.  
• Has variable or tunable frequency determining circuit

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LC Sinusoidal Oscillators
• are commonly used in radio-frequency circuits
• have good phase noise characteristics and
• are easy for implementation.
• the filter is a tuned circuit – LC tank circuit
• Used when a tunable frequency source is necessary
• Such as in signal generators, tunable radio transmitters and the local
oscillators
• Typical LC oscillator circuits are the Hartley, Colpitts and Clapp circuits.

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LC Sinusoidal Oscillators
• Basic conditions required for LC
oscillator resonant tank circuit
• Foroscillations to exist, the circuit MUST contain
a reactive component (L, C) and DC supply.
• InLC circuit,oscillations become damped over
time due to losses
• amplification
is required to overcome these losses
and provide positive gain
• The overall gain must be >1, unity.
• Oscillations
only occur when feedback is
“Positive” and in-phase(0oor 360o)

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LC Sinusoidal Oscillators
• Resonant Frequency of a LC Oscillator is given as:

• If either L or C are decreased, the frequency increases.

• LC oscillators can generate high frequency sine waves for use in
radio frequency (RF) type applications
• Using transistor amplifier of Bipolar Transistor or FET.
• The most common LC oscillator types are:
• Hartley LC Oscillator, Colpitts LC Oscillator, Armstrong
Oscillator and Clapp Oscillator 
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Hartley Oscillators
• It consists of a parallel LC resonator tank
circuit (center-tapped inductor)
• The feedback is achieved by way of an
inductive divider
• Its frequency of oscillation is given as:

 LT is total cumulatively inductance&

M is mutual inductance Basic Hartley Oscillator Design
• Gain of the circuit must be equal to or slightly using BJT
greater than the ratio of L1/L2.
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Colpitts Oscillators
• It uses two center-tapped
capacitors in series with a parallel
inductor
• The feedback is achieved by way
of a capacitive voltage divider.
• Its resonant frequency is:

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Armstrong oscillator
• Also called tickler oscillator 
• The feedback is magnetically coupled into
the tank inductor in the input circuit by a
"tickler coil" (L2,) in the output circuit.
• The frequency is determined by the tank
circuit (L1 & C)& approximately given by:
FET Armstrong oscillator
schematic

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Armstrong oscillator
• It was widely used in the
regenerative radio receiver
• The direction of the winding has
effect on the oscillation.
• Armstrong gives ac at audio or
radio frequency.

BJT Armstrong oscillator

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Crystal Controlled Oscillators
• It uses piezoelectric (quartz) crystal as
the filter
• It is used to stabilize the frequency of
oscillation.
• Quartz crystals are generally limited to
30MHz or below
Quartz Crystal Oscillator
• It operates on the principle of inverse symbol & schematic
piezoelectric effect

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Voltage Controlled Oscillator (VCO)
• The output instantaneous frequency of the oscillator is controlled by
the input DC voltage.
• At nominal control voltage, VC(nom), the VCO works at its free
running or normal frequency, fC(nom).

Basic VCO operation

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Types of VCO
• The VCOs can be categorized based on the output waveform as:
• Harmonic Oscillators
• The output waveform is sinusoidal
• E.g. LC and Crystal oscillators
• Advantages are : frequency stability, noise and temperature,
Accuracy in control of frequency.
• Relaxation Oscillators
• The output waveform is saw tooth.
• Mainly it can be used in monolithic ICs.

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Frequency Control in VCO
• Many forms of VCOs are generally used.
• It can be of RC or multi vibrator type or LC or crystal
oscillator type.
• If it is of RC oscillator type, the output frequency is 1/∝ to
capacitance:

• In the case of LC oscillator, the oscillation frequency of output

signal will be

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Applications of VCO
• Electronic jamming equipment.
• Function generator and tone generator
• Production of electronic music, for production of different
types of noise.
• Phase locked loop and Frequency-shift keying
• Frequency synthesizers, Frequency modulation used in
communication circuits.

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Non-sinusoidal Relaxation Oscillators-1
• They produce a square wave or pulsed output
• They generally use two amplifiers, and frequency control network
that produces a timing delay b/n two actions.
• The two amplifiers operate in switch mode, switching fully on or
fully off alternately,
• They switch for fraction of time and the rest of the cycle they "relax“
• They are also called "astable multivibrator“ b/c they have no
stable state, hence it is astable.

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Non-sinusoidal Relaxation Oscillators-2
• They basically contain more than one oscillating element,
• So they are called multivibrators.
• They are basically a two amplifier circuits arranged with
regenerative feedback.
• Relaxation oscillators can be built using several different designs
and can work at many different frequencies.
• So they are of three types: astable, monostable and bistable
multibivrators

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Astable multivibrators-1
• They are the multivibrators which have no stable state.
• They change from one state to the other all the time.
• They are also known as Free-running multivibrator
• They produce a continuous square wave from its output/s, (two
outputs no inputs)
• So they be used to flash lights or produce a sound in a
loudspeaker.

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Astable multivibrators-2
• They are used in pulse position modulation, frequency modulation, etc.
• they are simple, reliable and easy to construct.

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Bistable Multivibrators-1
• They have two stable states (HIGH or LOW)
• They depend upon the external triggers so as to switch in
between two states.
• They are also referred to as Trigger Circuits
• But bistable circuits are not self-triggered
• These circuits can be designed using transistors or Op-Amps
or 555 timer ICs with resistors.

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Bistable Multivibrators-2
• Consider BJT bistable circuit that uses:
• two NPN BJTs (Q1 and Q2) and

• four resistors RC1, RC2, R1 and R2.

• the SPDT switch triggers Q1 & Q2

mechanically or electronically.
• The output waveforms obtained at the terminal
O1 and O2 are complementary to each other,
always.
• Bistable circuits are used as memory storage
devices, timing circuits, frequency dividers, shift
registers, etc…
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Monostable Multivibrators-1
• They have only ONE stable state
• They make “one-shot” pulse generator.
• They are also known as One Shot Multivibrators.
• When triggered by short external pulse, it generates square wave

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Monostable Multivibrators-2
• They comprise of two set of
components:
• passive (resistors and capacitors)
and
• active (transistors or Op-Amps or
555 timer ICs).
• E.g. shown is Monostable
multivibrator designed using BJTs

PPT2.290 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Lesson Summary
• Electronic oscillator is designed specifically to produce electrical
oscillation and converts DC) to AC signal.
• An oscillator has three essential sections; amplifier , feedback network
and LC tank circuit.
• Oscillators work on the Barkhausen Criterion
• Oscillator circuits can classified based on different methods and circuit
components used.
• Oscillators are used as voltage controlled oscillators, relaxation
oscillators, multivibrators, frequency synthesizers , flip-flops etc.

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Progress Test 2.4
1. What are the three essential sections of oscillator circuits?
2. Which part of the oscillator determines the oscillation frequency?
3. Which type of LC oscillator uses two center-tapped capacitors in series with
a parallel inductor?
4. What type of oscillator circuit is suitable for fixed frequency operation?
5. Which type of multivibrator circuit has two stable states when trigged?
6. What type of frequency synthesizer used as frequency modulator ?

PPT2.300 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

 Lesson 5:
Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)

PPT2.301 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Introduction to PCB -1
• A Printed Circuit Board,
• is used to mechanically support and electrically connect electronic
components using conductive pathways, or traces, etched from copper
sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate.
• alternatively called etched wiring board or printed circuit board
assembly (PCBA).
• is usually an epoxy board on which the circuit leads have been added
by the photoetching process
• Which leaves copper strips (lands) that are used to connect the
components.

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Introduction to PCB -2
• In general, printed circuit boards eliminate both the heavy, metal
chassis and the point-to-point wiring.
• PCBs are rugged, inexpensive, and can be highly reliable.
• They require much more layout effort and higher initial cost than
either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits,
• but are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production.

PPT2.303 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Introduction to PCB -3

A PCB as a design on a computer (left) and realized as a board

assembly with populated components (right).
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Description of PCB
• PCBs micro-miniaturization,
rationalization of component layout
and mounting, weight-saving, and the
simplification of installation and
maintenance are essential factors for
aircraft electronic systems.
• PCBs can be single sided (one copper
layer), double sided (two copper
layers) or multi-layer (outer & inner
layers).

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PCB design considerations -1
• PCBs comprise copper tracks bonded to an epoxy glass or
synthetic resin bonded paper (SRBP) board.
• The current rating of a PCB track depends on three factors:
• the width of the track;
• the thickness of the copper coating (most common 35μm);
• the maximum permissible temperature rise (<100C).

PPT2.306 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

PCB design considerations-2
• Off-board connections to PCBs can be made using various
techniques, including:
• direct soldering to copper pads;
• soldered or crimped connections to pins inserted into the PCB
which are themselves soldered into place;
• edge connectors (invariably these are gold plated to reduce
contact resistance and prevent oxidation);
• indirect connector using headers soldered to a matrix of pads on
the PCB.
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Materials used for PCBs -1
• The laminate material used to construct a PCB must have the
following properties:
• very high resistivity;
• very high flexural strength;
• ability to operate at relatively high temperatures (e.g. up to 125oC);
• high dielectric breakdown strength.

PPT2.308 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Materials used for PCBs -2

Typical materials used in printed circuit boards

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PCB Manufacturing -1
• PCB processing and assembly are done in an extremely clean
environment.
• Most PCBs are designed and manufactured entirely using computer-
aided manufacturing(CAM) techniques
• Circuit Diagram Layout designing
• Manufacturing process
• Testing Process

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PCB Manufacturing-2
• The PCB manufacturing process can be done with the
following procedures:
1. Making the substrate
• Dipping or spraying of epoxy resin on glass fiber
• Patterning (Etching) (additive or subtractive methods)
• Silk screening -uses etch-resistant inks
• Photoengraving -uses a photomask and chemical etching
• PCB milling - ‘using milling machine or PCB Prototyper‘)
• Lamination
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PCB Manufacturing -3

Etching Process
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PCB Manufacturing -4
2. Drilling and plating the holes
• Drilling holes or vias- thius can be done by
• drill
tape or drill file also called numerically controlled drill (NCO) files
or "Excellon files“
• controlled-depth drilling, laser drilling, or by pre-drilling the individual
sheets connected through holes are called blind vias
• Formulti-layers holes are plated with copper to form plated­through
holes, and smear of doping agents must be removed by a chemical de-
smear process, or by plasma-etch.

PPT2.313 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

PCB Manufacturing -5
3. Creating the printed circuit
pattern on the substrate
• PCB circuit pattern may be
created by:
• Additive process or
• Subtractive process
Additive Process

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PCB Manufacturing-6
4. Attaching the contact fingers
• The contact fingers are attached to the edge of the substrate to
connect with the printed circuit.
• The contact fingers are masked off from the rest of the board and
then plated.
• Plating is done with three metals first tin-lead, next nickel, then
gold.

PPT2.315 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

PCB Manufacturing -7
5. Fusing the tin-lead coating
• Exposed Conductor Plating and Coating
• Electrochemical migration (ECM)
• Fusion Bonding
6. Sealing, stenciling, and cutting the panels
• Each panel is sealed with epoxy
• Instructions and other markings are stenciled onto the boards by Screen
Printing (silk screen)
• panels are then cut into individual boards & edges are smoothed
7. Mounting the components on the substrate
• Components are mounted by Soldering and
• other areas are covered by Solder Resist (solder mask) coating
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PCB Manufacturing -8
8. Testing
• The bare-board tested as defined in a netlist
• For high-volume production, a Bed of nails tester, a fixture or a Rigid
needle adapter is used
• For small-or medium volume boards, flying-probe and flying-grid
testers used.
9. Protection and packaging
• Many assembled PCBs are static sensitive
• They have a conformal coat (usually dips of dilute solutions of
silicone rubber, polyurethane, acrylic, or epoxy

PPT2.317 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

PCB Manufacturing -9

PCB
manufacturing
process

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Populating Printed Circuit Assembly
• In through-hole construction, component leads are inserted in
holes.
• In surface-mount construction, the components are placed on
pads or lands on the outer surfaces of the PCB.
• In both kinds of construction, component leads are electrically
and mechanically fixed to the board with a molten metal
solder.

PPT2.319 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Populating Printed Circuit Assembly
• Often, through-hole and surface-mount construction must be
combined in a single PCA
• some required components are available only in surface-mount packages,
• while others are available only in through-hole packages.
• through-hole mounting can provide needed strength for components
likely to endure physical stress,
• while surface-mounting used for components that are expected to go
untouched will take up less space.
• After board is populated, the populated board may be tested.

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Types of PCB constructions
• "Cordwood" construction-
• can give large space-saving advantages
• Multi-wire Boards
• It is a patentee technique of interconnection
• uses machine-routed insulated wires embedded in a non-conducting
matrix
• Surface-Mount Technology (SMT)
• SMT is now widely used in the manufacture of PCBs for avionic systems.
• allows circuits assembled in a much smaller space

PPT2.321 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Types of PCB constructions
• Surface-Mount Technology (SMT)
• It is also possible to mix the two technologies:
• some through-hole mounting and some surface mounted components
(SMCs) on the same board.
• The following combinations are possible:
• SMCs on both sides of a PCB.
• SMC on one side of the board and conventional through-hole
components (THCs) on the other.
• A mixture of SMC and THC on both sides of the PCB.
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PCB Inspection
• After printing, circuit patterns should be inspected and particular
attention should be paid to the following:
• Dimensional Accuracy and Condition of the Edges of Conductors- should
be inspected
• Condition of the Pattern Surfaces - should be clean, and free from hairline
cracks, blistering, large pinholes, dents and scratches.
• Particles of Copper in Unwanted Areas - These particles should always be
removed.
• Insulation Areas - These should be free from flaking, crazing, resin starvation
and similar imperfections.
• Lack of Resin Bond in etched Areas - This is indicated by changes in colour
(fogging) of the base material.
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Application of PCB
• The PCBs have general applications for reductions in size,
weight, and power consumption were impressive for all
integrated circuits.
• Circuits that earlier weighed as much as 50 pounds were
reduced in weight to just a few ounces by replacing bulky
components with the much lighter solid-state devices.

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Lesson Summary
• A Printed Circuit Board is used to mechanically support and
electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways.
• PCBs can be single sided, double sided or multi-layer (outer & inner
layers).
• PCBs are manufactured in clean room with different fabrication
processes.
• PCBs have general applications for reductions in size, weight, and
power consumption were impressive for all integrated circuits.

PPT2.325 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Progressive Test 2.5
1. What are the essential factors that determine to use PCBs
for aircraft electronic systems?
2. List the typical laminate type materials used in PCBs.
3. Explain the PCB manufacturing processes.
4. In which PCB construction method is the components
are placed on the pads or lands on the outer surface?
5. After PCB printing, which circuit patterns should be
inspected and particular attention should be paid?
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Module Review-1
• Electronic power supply
• Rectifier, Filter, Voltage regulator
• Amplifier Circuits
• BJT Amplifier, Classification, Biasing, Coupling, Operating
frequencies, Classes, Applications
•Integrated Circuits
• Types, Integration Scale, IC manufacturing
• Differential and Op-Amp
• Op-Amp circuits applications
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Module Review-2
• Oscillator Circuits
• Oscillation principles
• Types of oscillators
• LC-Sinusoidal oscillators
• Non-sinusoidal relaxation oscillators
• Frequency synthesizer
• Oscillators Applications

PPT2.328 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

Module Review-3
• Printed Circuit Boards
• Description of PCB
• PCB Manufacturing processes
• Types of PCB constructions
• PCB inspection
• PCB applications

PPT2.329 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0

 Any Questions?

Thank You!

PPT2.330 ET-AV02: :Electronic Fundamentals Rev No.0