Week 14

In conclusion…
Modernisation of the Ottoman Empire

4) The adoption of the concept of equal citizenship

-The Edicts of Reorganisation(Tanzimat) and Reform(Islahat)
Sultan Abdulmecid (1839-1861)

5) The constitution of 1876 -Sultan Abdulhamid (1876-1908)

- Ottomanism vs. Nationalism

6) The establishment of organisations

- Young Turks Associations, Ottoman Union and Progress
Association(Ittihat ve Terraki Cemiyeti)- Some key figures: Ahmet Riza Bey,
Talat Pasha, Enver Pasha

7) The Union and Progress Era (1908-1918)

Modernisation of the Ottoman Empire

What was the earlier

‘citizenship’ practice under
the Ottoman Empire?
 Modernisation of the Ottoman Empire
  Millet system:
‘A self-ruling administration structure based
on the Islamic law and practice, which granted
a degree of administrative and legal
autonomy to non-Muslims, including religious
and cultural freedom’(Karpat, 1982).

The millet system  Religious identity has been a permanent

feature in classifying and structuring ethnic groups in the
Ottoman Empire
Modernisation of the Ottoman Empire

• Which ideologies were

dominant in your
opinion?
Modernisation of the Ottoman Empire
- Islamists (Pan-Islamism)

- Modernists (Westernists and Nationalists)

- Nationalism ( during the Young Turks’ period)

 Some chronological events
• Mondros Armistice (1918)- defeat of the
Ottoman Empire following the 1st World War
• National Independence/ Liberation
movement (1919)- under the leadership of
Mustafa Kemal (later Ataturk), conventions in
Erzurum and Sivas
• Occupation of Istanbul (March 1920)- the Sultan’s
government in Istanbul vs. the nationalists in Anatolia
• Treaty of Sevres (August 1920) – not accepted by the newly
established National Assembly
 Some chronological events
• National Pact (Misak-i Milli)
– Emphasising the nation’s independence,
sovereignty, solidarity and territorial integrity
– Against foreign occupation, foreign mandates, and
privileges to minorities
• The establishment of the Grand National
Assembly (1920)
– The Constitutional Act (1921) – Teşkilatı Esasiye
Kanunu
 Early Republican Period I

• What were the main

elements of the
Constitutional Act?
 Early Republican Period I
• Sovereignty principle
• Elections (every two years)
• No referral to secularism (yet!)
• Institutional changes, e.g. national assembly
• Change of regime– between monarchy and
republicanism
• Polarisation – modernists vs. conservatives?
 Early Republican Period I
• The Greek-Turkish War (1919-1922)

• Mudanya Armistice (1922)

• The abolishment of the Sultanate (1922)

• Lausanne Peace Treaty (1922-3)- recognition of the

government & borders of the new Turkish state
 Early Republican Period I

• What is the significance

of Lausanne Peace
Treaty?
 Early Republican Period I
• Lausanne Peace Treaty (1923)
– Turkey was represented by the national delegation only(led by
Ismet Inonu)
– Settled main disputes between Turkey- Allied Powers, Turkey-
Greece (exchange of populations )
– Turkish Straits were demilitarised, navigation-related issues
– Capitulations were abolished
– Foreign troops left Turkey
– Borders of Turkey (border with Iraq was the only unresolved
one)
– Yet, it brought new disputes within the National Assembly.. A
new regime with or without the Caliphate?
 Early Reforms
• The establishment of the Turkish Republic
(1923) – a new Constitution of 1924
• Three basic ideas: nationalism, populism, secularism

• The secularisation of Turkey: The abolishment of

the Caliphate (1924) Establishment of the
Directorate of Religious Affairs Religious courts
were abolished Modernisation of the education
system, Ministry of Education
 Reactions to Early Reforms
• Single Party Period: People’s Republican Party (CHP)
» Opposition parties : Progressive Republican Party (1924-
1925) and Liberal Republican Party (1930)

• Creation of a nation-state/ an ethnically

homogeneous population?

• The 1925 Kurdish revolt (headed by Seyh Sait)

» The purpose of the revolt: an independent Kurdish state,
restoring the Caliphate, to strengthen the authority of Feudal
lords in the east.
» Reaction of the Turkish government: Maintenance of Order Law
was adopted, Martial Law was declared and Independence
Tribunals were reactivated
 Reforms from 1925 onwards
• Legal Reforms: Civil Code of Switzerland, Penal and
Commercial Law (1926), Family Law (1936)
• Language Reform: Latin Alphabet (1928), the
establishment of Turkish Language Institute
• Equality and Non-discrimination: Voting rights for
women (1930, 1935)
• Social-cultural reforms: Rules concerning clothing,
the diminished impact of religion in daily life,
prevalence of modernist-secularist policy
 Reforms from 1925 onwards
• Economic Reforms: State Monopoly over a number
of sectors, stagnation of the economy- the world
economic crisis of 1928-9, industrialisation
• Liberal Party (1930)
• Main ideologies: republicanism, nationalism,
populism, secularism, statism, reformism ( 1937)
• The death of Ataturk (1938), the new president
Ismet Inonu…
 Political Transformation of Turkey
• The legislative-executive relations:
supremacy of the executive during the one-
party rule (1923-46)
• Second World War- policy of neutrality
• United Nations Membership
– Ratification of the United Nations Charter (1945)
– ‘direct external pressure for democratisation’, but
also internal social and cultural factors
introduction of multi-party regime
 Political Transformation of Turkey
• First opposition parties in Turkey after the 2nd
world war:
• ‘National Insurgence’(Milli Kalkinma)
• Democratic Party (1946)- under the
leadership of Celal Bayar
 Political Transformation of Turkey
‘Liberalisation Measures by the Republican Party’:
• The universities were given autonomy
• Amendments to the Press Law
– The Turkish Press Union was established
• Amendments to the Law on Associations
• Amendments to the Electoral Law
 Transition to Multi-Party System
• Redefining Populism
• Redefining Statism
• Socio-economic development:
– Until the mid-1940s slow, yet steady development,
strictly regulated by the state
– Since 1949 significant economic change : Foreign
assistance (mostly American aid), foreign loan, a new
investment policy
• Elections in 1946
– The increase in leftist parties
– ‘The concept of class representation changed into
the idea of general representation’
– ‘Political parties were to represent all social
groups , without any class distinction’
 Statism and Socio-economic Conditions

• Internal and External influences on Economy

– American influence(1949-53)
– Move towards economic liberalism (1946-50)
• The Republican Party (1947 Convention)
• The Democratic Party (1947 Convention)
– Moving towards a ‘more liberal form of statism’
– Redefining the state’s economic responsibilities
» The operation of heavy industry, mines, power
installations, national defense and communications were
to be retained by the state, the rest for individuals
– Private enterprise and private capital should be encouraged
 Socio-economic development:
– Until the mid-1940s slow, yet steady development, strictly regulated by the state
– Since 1949 significant economic change : Foreign assistance (mostly American aid),
foreign loan, a new investment policy
– Increase in gross national income
(9370 billion TL in 1950 22,634 billion TL in 1956)
Problems…
- Unbalanced distribution of income
- The largest social group: Peasants
(83 % of the population in 1945 - 71 % in 1955)

The illiteracy rate : 65 % in1950

 Democratisation of Turkey
• Democratic credentials of a regime:
– Elected officials must control the state and
key decisions
– The power of government institutions should
constrain the executive power
– No group (constitutionally eligible) can be
denied the right to form a political party and
contest elections
(Diamond 1999)
 Democratisation of Turkey
– Freedom of Expression
– Every group should be able to pursue their
own interests
– Freedom of Participation (including equal
participation of cultural, ethnic, religious and other
minority groups)
– An impartial institution (e.g. judiciary) to
protect the rights of citizens
– Citizens should be protected from unjustified
detention, exile, terror and torture
(Diamond 1999)
 Democratisation of Turkey

Turkey's transition to democracy:

• Initiated by elites (since M.K. Ataturk)
• Multi-party system: elections in 1946
and elections in 1950
• Non-democratic practices were
prevalent during the 1950s (e.g. relations
with the opposition party, jailing of journalists, no
constitutional order to check the ruling party)
• A slow transition process (experience
of democratic breakdown by military
coups)
– First military coup in 1960 , a soft coup in 1971, military coup in
 Democratisation of Turkey

• The 1961 Constitution:

– The electoral system was changed to
proportional representation
– A second chamber was created
– A constitutional court was established
– Universities and the Turkish Radio and
Television Corporation were made
autonomous
 Democratisation of Turkey

• The 1982 Constitution:

– Centralisation of power (increase of
presidential and military powers)
– The legislature was reduced to one chamber
– Universities were returned to state control
– Restrictions on political parties, labour unions,
and other professional associations
– Strong censorship powers to the government
– The Electoral Law: 10 per cent threshold
 Democratisation of Turkey

Since 2001: A number of constitutional reforms and

adaptation to the EU Acquis by 11 reform
packages since 2002
Democratic Consolidation
 Democratic Consolidation
2002 Elections:
• End of shaky multiparty coalition governments
• Only AKP and Republican People’s Party
passed the 10 per cent threshold (AKP
363/541 elected seats; CHP 178 got elected
seats)
• Political victory of the central right and central
left?
 Democratic Consolidation
AKP’s strategy: Focusing on sustainable economic recovery
and corruption; emphasis on ‘competence’ over ideology;
emphasis on democracy and fundamental rights and
freedoms, EU membership (Keyman and Onis 2008).
Support groups: Small and medium-scale business owners,
civil society actors

Major socio-economic issues:

- Unemployment, poverty and economic growth
- How to protect a regulated market economy?
- The question of ‘social justice’
 Democratic Consolidation
Why the central-left had less support?
- Economic policies
- Less support of small and medium-sized entreprises
- Close ties with ‘Turkish statism’: top-down decision
making and centralised structure
- Official support for EU membership and reforms, yet lack
of energy and enthusiasm
- The passive stance of CHP as a social democrat party
- CHP’s strong hierarchical organisation and lack of internal
debate over key policy issues
- Strong leadership, state-centric, nationalist policies
 Democratic Consolidation
The effects of Global Dynamics on democratic consolidation
- The positive and negative impact of Globalisation since
the 1980s
- The economy has undergone through a major
transformation ( neo-liberal structuring)
- Opening Turkish economy to global markets
- Export-promotion based model of industrialisation

- Global, national and local interactions: emergence of

social movements, civil society organisations, identity
politics (Keyman and Onis 2008)
- Distanced society-state relations: lack of responsiveness
 Paradoxes of Turkish
political identity
• Religion: religious, political Islam, secularism
• Nationalism: Turkism, ethnonationalism, religious
nationalism
• Cultural plurality: multiculturalism
• Europeanism: Pan-Europeans, Euro-sceptics
 Turkey is in
Europe, but not
of Europe?
Turkey and Europe
 Discussion Questions

- In what ways Turkey is a European country?

- In what ways Turkey is a Middle Eastern country?

- Should Turkey become more influential over regional

politics of the Middle East? Discuss.

- How can Turkey boost its relations with Europe?

Discuss.

- Discuss whether Turkey can act as a bridge between

the Middle East and Europe.