QUESTION 1: A transmission system using a TE10 

mode waveguide of dimensions a=5cm,b=3cm , is operating at

10GHz. The distance measured between two minimum power points is 1mm on a slotted line. Calculate the VSWR of
the system.
• Solution
• Given that f=10GHz;a=5cm;b=3cm;
For TE10 mode waveguide,
Λg= = = 3.144 cm

• We determine,
For double minimum process VSWR is calculated by;
QUESTION 2:(a) Define velocity modulation
(b) What do you mean by klystron?
(c) Mention the application of two-cavity klystron.
(d) Define Transit time in Reflex klystron

• SOLUTION(a) This is the modification of the velocity of a stream of electrons by impacting

alternate accelerations and decelerations to the electrons so as to effect bunching which
results in cycle of current as it passes through the output electrode.
• (b) A klystron is a vacuum tube that can be used either as a generator or as an amplifier of
power at microwave frequencies operated by the principles of velocity and current modulation
• (c) 1. Used in Troposphere scatter transmitters.
• 2. Satellite communication to ground stations.
• 3. Used in UHF TV transmitters.
• 4. Radar transmitters.
• (d) The time taken by the electron to travel into the Repeller space and back to
• the gap in the electron Tube in a Reflex Klystron.
Question3(a) Write a short note on
i. O – type tubes and
ii. M – type tubes.
(b) What is meant by microwave resonators?
( c) Describe tunneling phenomenon
(d) What are the applications of tunnel diode?

(a) O – type tubes:

• Klystrons and TWTs are liner beam tubes in which the accelerating electric field is in the same direction as the static magnetic field used
to focus the electron beam. Here the electron beam travel in a straight line.
• M – type tubes:
• Magnetrons are crossed field devices where the static magnetic field is perpendicular to the electric field. In this tube, the electrons
beam travel in a curved path.
• (b) Microwave resonators are tunable circuits used in microwave oscillators, amplifiers, wave meters and filters. At the tuned frequency
the circuit resonates where the average energies stored in the electric field, We and magnetic field, Wm are equal and the circuit
impedance purely real.
• (c) When the doping level is increased the depletion region reduces. Due to thin depletion region, even for very small forward bias
many carriers penetrate through the junction and appear at the other side. This phenomenon of penetration of carriers through the
depletion region is known as tunneling.
• (d) i. Relaxation oscillator
• ii. Microwave oscillator
• iii. Storage device
• iv. Pulse generator
• v. High speed switching networks
 Question4(a) What is an ideal Directional Coupler?
(b) What are the uses and Properties of an ideal Directional Coupler.
• (a) A directional Coupler is a Passive RF device that is used to sample a small amount of Microwave Signal for
measurement purposes.
• A directional coupler is a passive RF and Microwave device which couples part of the transmission power by a known
amount out through another port, often by using two transmission lines set close enough together such that energy passing
through one is coupled to the other. The device has four ports: input, transmitted, coupled, and isolated. The term "main
line“ or the primary main waveguide refers to the section between ports 1 and 2. While the secondary auxiliary
waveguide refers to the section between ports 3 and 4

Where Port 1 is the input port,

Port 2 is the Transmitted or the output Port,
Port 3 is the Coupled Port,
Port 4 is the Isolated Port
Question 5(a) A line has a phase constant of 29.8 rad/m. At 1000 MHz the wavelength is
(b) Explain the principle of operation of Klystron.
• Solution
• (a) In a Transmission Line, the wavelength, λ and the phase constant, β is related by the equation,
• λ = , where β = 29.8 rad/m. Therefore, = 0.211 meter.
• Therefore, at 1000 MHZ, the wavelength is 0.211 meter.
•(b) A Klystron is a vacuum tube used for generation/amplification of microwaves. An electron beam is produced by
oxide coated indirectly heated cathode and is focused and accelerated by focusing electrode. This beam is
transmitted through a glass tube. The input cavity where the beam enters the glass tube is called buncher .As
electrons move ahead they see an accelerating field for half cycle and retarding field for the other half cycle.
Therefore, some electrons are accelerated and some are retarded. This process is called velocity modulation. The
velocity modulation causes bunching of electrons. This bunching effect converts velocity modulation into density
modulation of beam. The input is fed at buncher cavity and output is taken at catcher cavity.
•
.
 Question 6(a) What are the characteristics of a lossless Line?
(b) What is the Transmission coefficient of a transmission line with Z 0 = 300 Ω and ZL = (300 - j300) ohm.

• (a) A Lossless Line: It is a Transmission Line with no Resistive and Dielectric Loss.
• 1. It does not dissipate any power Loss.
• 2. It is non-Dispersive ( I,e the Phase Constant ,β, varies Linearly with frequency, ω or the Velocity Vp = is independent of
frequency
• 3. Its characteristic Impedance, Ζ o is real.
• 4. A Lossless Line is defined as a Transmission Line that has no Line Resistance and no Dielectric Loss. i.e both the conductor
and the Dielectric are perfect in such a way that the Conductivity σc = ꝏ , while σd = 0 , where R = 0 and G = 0.
• 5. For a Lossless Line, Attenuation Constant, α = 0, but the phase constant, β is non-zero hence in the equation , ϒ = α + j β, we
have , ϒ = j β = jω, that means the Propagation Constant is an Imaginary function.
• 6. The speed of wave Propagation is the same as different Frequencies travel across it.
• 7. When a transmission line is terminated with its Characteristic impedance, Ζ o all energy will be transferred to the load and
no energy will be Reflected. Therefore, the Reflected Constant, Γ= 0.
• 8. In a Lossless Line, the Electric Fields are produced by Voltage while Magnetic Fields are produced by Current.
• (b) where, Γ = ,Transmission coefficient, T = 1+ Γ, = = = =
• = X = = 1.2 – j0.4 → a – jb, where modulus, R = √[(1.2)2 + (0.4)2 ] = 1.265, The Angle of Inclination,
• ϴ = = -18.430 . Therefore, The Transmission Coefficient of the Transmission Line is
• = 1.265 ∠- 18.43°.
•
 Question 7(a) A line has Z0 = 300 ∠ 0° Ω. If ZL = 150 ∠ 0° Ω, calculate the reflection coefficient.
(b) A loss less line of characteristic impedance Z0 is terminated in pure reactance of -jZ0 value. What is the VSWR?
( c) what is Impedance Matching?
• (a) given that Z0 = 300 Ω, ZL = 150 Ω , ρv= = = = - 0.3.
• Therefore, In a lossless line RL < Z0, then Reflection coefficient is negative
• (b) For a Transmission line to be terminated with a pure Reactance, A pure reactance does not absorb any power
that means the load Impedance is Zero as if the load is short-circuited. Therefore, the absolute Value of the
Reflected Coefficient , ρv 1.
• Hence, SWR = ∞
• ( c) Impedance Matching is the process whereby the input and output Impedance of an electrical Load in a
Transmission Line is designed in such a way that the Signal Reflection is minimized or for the signal power
Transferred to the Load is maximized. To achieve this impedance matching, the following conditions are to be
met. The resistance of the load should be equal to that of the source.
• RL=RS
• The reactance of the load should be equal to that of the source but opposite in sign.
• XL=−XS.
• Which means, if the source is inductive, the load should be capacitive and vice versa.
 Question 8(a)Indicate the power flow pattern in a Directional Coupler.
(b) What are the parameters used to define an Ideal Directional Coupler
© Why the S-parameters are used in microwaves?
a) Under Normal circumstances, the output of Port 3 should be zero. Though, almost, a small amount of power
•(

called back power is practically detected at Port 3.

•Where
•• Pi = Incident power at Port 1
•• Pr = Received power at Port 2
•• Pf= Forward
Where coupled power at Port 4
 P  =
•• Pb = Back Incident
power
i power
at Port 3 at Port 1
Cou

 P = Received power at Port 2

r 

(b) Theparameters used

P = Forward
f
to define
coupled theatDirectional
power Port 4 Coupler are:
•1. Coupling
 P  =Factor
bBack(C):The Coupling
power at Port 3 factor of a directional coupler is the ratio of incident power to the forward
power, measured in dB

•2. Directivity (D): The Directivity of a directional coupler is the ratio of forward power to the back power,
measured in dB
•Directivity (D)
•up
Continued…….

3. Isolation
It defines the directive properties of a directional coupler. It is the ratio of incident power to the
back power, measured in dB.

Therefore, Isolation in dB = Coupling factor + Directivity.

( c) The H, Y, Z and ABCD parameters are difficult at microwave frequencies due to the following reasons.
• · Equipment is not readily available to measure total voltage and total current at the ports of the networks.
• · Short circuit and open circuit are difficult to achieve over a wide range of frequencies.
• · Presence of active devices makes the circuit unstable for short (or) open circuit.
Therefore, microwave circuits are analyzed using scattering (or) S parameters which linearly relate the reflected
wave amplitude with those of incident waves.
Question 9(a) What are the applications of reflex klystron?
(b) Apart from reflex klystron, what other devices are used as microwave signal sources?
( c) What is Gunn Effect?
(d) What is negative resistance in Gunn Diode ?

• (a)Reflex Klystrons are used as:

• 1) signal source in microwave generators.
• 2) Local Oscillators in Microwave receivers.
• 3) Pump Oscillators in Parametric Amplifiers.
• 4) Frequency Modulated Oscillators in portable Microwave Links.
• (b) Apart from Reflex Klystron, other devices used as Microwave Signal sources are:
• 1) Magnetron oscillator
• 2) Backward wave oscillator
• 3) Gunn oscillator
• 4) IMPATT diode oscillator
• 5)TRAPPAT diode oscillator
 Continued….

• ( c)Gunn Effect: When the voltage gradient or the Electric Field across an N- Type semiconducting Solid, for
example, a slice of GaAs, exceeds a certain critical Threshold Value of Electric Field of about 3300V/cm,
negative resistance will develop, and oscillations occur if the slice is connected to a suitable tank circuit i.e. an
LC circuit, a resonant circuit or a tunned circuit. The elements that exhibit Gunn Effect are:
• · Gallium arsenide (Ga-As)
• · Indium phosphide (In-Ph)
• · Cadmium telluride (Cd-Te)
• · Indium arsenide (In-As)
• (d) Negative Resistance: A device is said to have negative resistance characteristics if, during its operation an
increase in the voltage across it leads to decrease in its current.
 Question 10(a) What will be the effect on the signal values of (i)Reflection Coefficient(ii) Return Loss (iii)VSWR in a Microwave
Network when there is (i) No reflection (ii) Full Reflection

• Solution
• (a)( I) . At no Reflection, ΖL = Ζ0 , Γ = 0, RT = ꝏ, VSWR = 1,The signal effect on:
• 1 . Reflection Coefficient, Γ = ǀΓǀjϴ = . = 0
• 2.
Return Loss, RT = -20 Log ǀΓǀ = ꝏ
• 3. VSWR = = =1

.
(II) At Full Reflection, ΖL = open = ꝏ or ΖL = short = 0 , Γ = 1, RT = 0 , VSWR = ꝏ, The signal effect on:
• 1 . Reflection Coefficient, Γ = ǀΓǀjϴ = . = 1
• 2.
Return Loss, RT = -20 Log ǀΓǀ = 0
• 3. VSWR = = =ꝏ
• Therefore, if ZL = 0 or ZL = ∞, i.e., line is open - circuit or short – circuit, Reflection Coefficient, Γ = 1 , . Return
Loss, RT = 0, while the Voltage Standing Wave Ratio , VSWR = ꝏ.
Question 11(a) A 75 ohm line is first short terminated and minima locations are noted. Then the short is replaced by resistive load and minima
locations are again noted. If minima locations are not altered and VSWR is 3,Calculate the value of the resistive load.

• Solution
• (a) Given that Ζ0 = 75Ω, VSWR = 3 , ΖL = ? But VSWR = . Therefore, 3 =
• 3( 1 – ρv ) = 1 + ρv
• 3 - 3ρv = 1 + ρv , hence, 4 ρv = 2, where the Reflection Coefficient, ρv = = 0.5
• To calculate the Resistive Load, ΖL ,
ρv= , now Ζ0 = 75Ω, VSWR = 3, ρv = = 0.5
= = , ΖL + 75 = 2(ΖL – 75), where 2 ΖL - ΖL = 75 + 150
Hence, the Resistive Load, ΖL = 225 Ω.
Question 12(a) .What is the relationship between λ0, λg & λc in a wave guide? Derive it.
(b) A rectangular waveguide has dimensions a=5cm, b=2cm.The signal applied to waveguide is 10GHz. Determine the modes that are propagating in the waveguide

• (a)Guided Wavelength is defined as the distance travelled by the wave in a Waveguide in order to undergo a phase shift of 2π
radians. It is related to phase constant by the relation, λg=2π/β.The wavelength in the waveguide is different from the wavelength in
free space. Guided wavelength, λg is related to free space wavelength, λ 0 and cut-off wavelength, λc by
• 1/λ2g =1/0 -1/λ2c, since λg > λ0
• Λ 2g = → Λ g =
• The above equation is true for any mode in a waveguide of any cross section.
• However, Cut-off Wavelength, λc occurs at the Frequency where the propagation constant,ϒ = 0 or the Attenuation and the Phase
constant, both equals to zero, α = 0 = β.
• Wave propagates in the waveguide when guided wavelength, λ g is grater than the free space wavelength, λ 0.
• (b) The mode for which the cut-off wavelength assumes a maximum value is called the Dominant mode.
λcmn =
• For TE01 mode λc01=2b
• TE10 mode λc10=2a
• Among all, λc10 has the maximum value since ‘a’ is the larger dimensions than ‘b’. Hence TE10 mode is the dominant mode in
rectangular waveguide. All wavelengths greater than λc are attenuated and the ones less than λc are allowed to propagate
inside the waveguide.
• TM11 has the lowest cutoff frequency (or the longest cutoff wavelength) of all the TM modes.
• Therefore, the modes that are propagating in the TE mode of this waveguide is the TE 10. While that of TM mode is the TM 11
 THANK YOU

• THANK YOU