Research Methodology

Arch 5391
LECTURE-NOTE

“Research brings science to our art. . . . To move the art of

architecture forward, however, we need to supplement Intuition with
science” Kieran’s
By: Melese B. (M.Sc.)
October, 2019
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
COURSE OBJETIVE

 The course aims to introduce the basics of research

methodology to undertake Architectural Research solving
building design and construction problems.

• research embodies the scientific model of

knowledge as “truth” and “fact” based on
quantitative data, ...”
• …design is related to the innate human ability to
plan and pattern any disparate set of inputs toward
a comprehensible, or desired, end.
COURSE CONTENT

I. Introduction to Research

II. Research Problem

III. Literature Review

IV. Research Methodology

V. Research Methods

VI. Research Design

VII. Writing research proposal

VIII. Research Report Writing

I. What is Research
a systematic quest for undiscovered truth
the search for an answer to an unanswered question

 ‘a systematic attempt to provide answers to questions’ ( Tuckman,1972).

 a ‘systematic and objective analysis and recording of controlled

observations that may lead to the development of generalizations,

principles or theories resulting in prediction and possibly ultimate control
of events’ (Best and Khan, 1989).
 it is a systematic, objective and comprehensive investigation of
certain phenomenon which involves accurate gathering and
recording and critical analyses and interpretation of all facts about
the phenomenon for theoretical or practical ends.
Characteristics of research
Systematic Unhurried activity
Objective Requires courage
Comprehensive Unbiased and logical
Critical Controlled
Rigorous Builds on existing data
Valid
Verifiable
Empirical
Solution oriented
Predictability
Accuracy
Function of research
1. Research corrects perceptions as well as expands them.

2.  Research gathers information on subjects or phenomena we

lack of or have little knowledge about it.

3.  Research develops and evaluates concepts, practices and

theories.

4.  Research develops and evaluates methods and/or strategies

that test concepts, practices and theories.

5.  Research obtains knowledge for practical purposes

Stages in the Research Process
 consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively
carry out research and the desired sequencing of these steps.
Problem Identification
Review of related literature
Objectives formulation
Formulate hypothesis/assumption
Theoretical/ Conceptual framework
Research Design/sampling selection
Data collection
Data processing
Data analysis and interpretation
Report writing
Stages in the Research Process
Flow diagram Problem Identification

Review of Related Literature

Differences between Design and Research
Flow diagram
2. Research Problem
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 Without a problem, no research can be undertaken. The
problem is the heart of every research project because it
is paramount in importance to the success of the research
effort.
a research problem is exactly a problem that someone
would like to research.
o It involves the areas of concern of researchers which they wish
to improve, eliminate certain difficulties or seek answers to
questions or existing conditions.
 A research problem is the situation that causes the
researcher to feel apprehensive, confused or not at ease
2. Research Problem
WHAT IS A RESEARCH PROBLEM?
 It is the demarcation of a problem area within a
certain context involving the WHO or WHAT, the
WHERE, the WHEN and the WHY of the problem
situation.
 Research can be aimed at clarifying or substantiating
an existing theory, at clarifying contradictory
findings, at correcting a faulty methodology, at
correcting the inadequate or unsuitable use of
statistical techniques, at reconciling conflicting
opinions, or at solving existing practical problems.
2. Research Problem
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
 think on what caused the need to do the research
 Are there questions about this problem to which answers have
not been found up to the present?
 Research originates from a need that arises. A clear
distinction between the PROBLEM and the PURPOSE
should be made.
 The problem is the aspect the researcher worries about, think
about, wants to find a solution for.
 The purpose is to solve the problem, for example, find answers
to the question(s).
 If there is no clear problem formulation, the purpose and
methods are meaningless.
2. Research Problem
IDENTIFICATION OF THE PROBLEM
 Keep the following in mind:
 Outline the general context of the problem area.
 Highlight key theories, concepts and ideas current in this
area.
 What appear to be some of the underlying assumptions of this
area?
 Why are these issues identified important?
 What needs to be solved?
 Read the area to be researched (subject) to get to know the
background and to identify unanswered questions or
controversies, and/or identify the most significant issues for
further exploration.
2. Research Problem
STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
The research problem should be stated in such a way that it would
lead to analytical thinking on the part of the researcher with the
aim of possible concluding solutions to the stated problem.
Research problems can be stated in the form of either questions or
statements.
o The research problem should always be formulated
grammatically correct and as correctly as possible. You should
bear in mind the wording (expressions) you use. Avoid
meaningless words. There should be no doubt in the mind of the
reader what your intentions are.
o Demarcating the research field into manageable parts by dividing
the main problem into sub-problems is of utmost importance.
2. Research Problem
Sub-problems
Sub-problems are problems related to the main problem
identified.
Sub-problems flow from the main problem and make up
the main problem.
It is the means to reach the set goal in a manageable way
and contribute to solving the problem.
2. Research Problem
 CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
1. Is the problem of current interest? Will the research results have
social, educational or scientific value?
2. Will it be possible to apply the results in practice?
3. Does the research contribute to the field of sociology?
4. Will the research opt new problems and lead to further research?
5. Is the research problem important? Will you be proud of the result?
6. Is there enough scope left within the area of research or field of
research?
7. Can you find answer to the problem through research? Will you be
able to handle the research problem?
8. Will it be practically possible to undertake the research?
9. Will it be possible for another research to replicate the research?
2. Research Problem
 CHECKLIST FOR TESTING THE FEASIBILITY OF THE RESEARCH
PROBLEM
10. Is the research free of any ethical problems and limitations?
11. Will it have any value?
12. Do you have the necessary knowledge and skills to do the research?
Are you qualified to undertake the research?
13. Is the problem important to you and are you motivated to undertake
the research?
14. Is the research viable in your situation? Do you have enough time
and energy to complete the project?
15. Do you have the necessary funds for the research?
16. Will you be able to complete the project within the available time.
17. Do you have access to the needed statistics and computer facilities
needed for the research?
2. Research Problem
 Other Criteria’s for selecting research problem
i. Relevance
ii. Avoidance of duplication
iii. Urgency of data need (timelines)
iv. Political acceptability
v. Feasibility
vi. Applicability of Possible Results/Recommendations
vii. Ethical acceptance
2. Research Problem
 Sources of Research Problems
 personal experience
 common sense
 theory
 Past research
 Practical problems
 Journals, books, theses and dissertations and the mass
 Technological change
 Friends, colleagues, professors, consultants
 conference, symposia, dialogue or even ordinary meetings.
3. Review of related Literature
 Information and conclusions drawn by other researchers
• citations should be used extensively
• avoid overuse of direct quotations
 NOT the place for the researcher to compile the findings of
other researchers but to be able to use them in connection with
his current study
 ends with a summary of the information presented
3. Review of related Literature
 Purpose of literature Review ;
1. It broadens the researcher’s knowledge on the chosen research
problem.
2. a means of ensuring originality in the conduct of one’s research.
3. a way of ensuring clarity and focus on one’s study.
4. It can help the researcher in designing his proposed research.
5. provide the research insights on the weaknesses and strengths of
previous studies.
6. It can provide findings and conclusions of past studies, which a
researcher can use in relating to his findings and conclusions.
7. It can help the researcher in formulating the theoretical and
conceptual framework of the study.
8. provides the researcher information about the aspects of the problem
which have not been investigated or explored before
3. Review of related Literature
 Guidelines in Doing the Review

 Go over reading materials you have in the University library.

 Search for existing literature in your learning resource center.

 Prepare a working bibliography.

 Record important details of what you have reviewed

 Refrain from copying entire chapters without proper

documentation or acknowledgments.
 Make a related study on the needs and relevance of your

investigation.
3. Review of related Literature
 Writing the review;
 The text of the review should be brief and to the point.
 Have a plan on how you are to present the review
 Emphasize relatedness
 Review the literature; don’t reproduce it
 Presenting the Review.
a) chronological or periodic approach;
b) thematic or variable/factor approach; and
c) country of origin or geographic approach.
3. Review of related Literature
 Chronological or periodic approach;
• literature and studies are presented according
to the year when they were written.
• When using this approach, the review can be
presented following the outline below:
Introduction
Recent literature and studies
Least recent literature and studies
Synthesis of the review
3. Review of related Literature
 Thematic or variable/factor approach;
• literature and studies with the same findings or themes
are grouped together
• When using this approach, research and conceptual
literature can be presented following the given outline
below:
Introduction
Literature and studies on variable 1
Literature and studies on variable 2 and other variables
Synthesis of the review
3. Review of related Literature
Country of origin or geographic approach.
• literature and studies are categorized by the
country where they came from
• When using this pattern, literature and studies can
be presented based on the following outline:
• Introduction
• Foreign literature and studies
• Local literature and studies
• Synthesis of the review
3. Review of related Literature
 Citation techniques and Reference list;
• Citation standards and styles
 In-text Citation: applied when you summarize, paraphrase,
or quote related ideas from sources.
author-date citation method; the surname of the authors
and the year of publication
 direct quotations: surname of the authors, the year of
publication and page number
 A work by multiple authors; three, four or five authors
 cite all the authors for the first occurrence
in the subsequent occurrences, cite only the surname of the
first author followed by et al. and the year of publication.
3. Review of related Literature
 Citation techniques and Reference list;
• Citation of a work cited in a secondary source
You need to give secondary source followed by the
original work placed in parenthesis in text when you use a
work cited in a secondary source.
• Reference list
 provides information necessary to identify and retrieve
each source.
 include only the ones used in the text in their reference list
 All references should be arranged strictly alphabetically
You are rather advised to search and access the original work to
cite in your research.
3. Review of related Literature
 Citation techniques and Reference list;
• Different sources and types of publications
 Journal Article;
o Name (s) of author (s). Year of publication of the article. Title of
the article. Full name of the journal, volume no; and pages.
 Books;
 contribution to composite books;
A work cited in a secondary source;
Contribution to conferences, symposium, workshop, seminar or
proceedings
Thesis
Government/Institution/Society publications
Internet articles based on print sources….
4. Research Objective & Inquiry
 Research Objective ;
what the researcher want to achieve through the study
General objective
 Provide a short statement of the scientific goal to be pursued
Specific objective
 Operational and action oriented against which the success of the
research will be judged
 Emanate from the general objective and stated in action-oriented words
o To determine
o To find out
o To assess
o To measure
o To explore etc
These determines the type of research design/method to be
adopted to achieve them
4. Research Objective & Inquiry
Research Inquiry ;
• Research question
 what the researcher intends to find answer.
 a question that a research project sets out to answer
• Inquiry: a request for information
 a systematic investigation often of a matter of public interest
 examination into facts or Principles (Research)
• Question
 An interrogative expression often used to test knowledge
 An act or instance of asking; inquiry
 Seeks to improve knowledge on important topic
5. Research Topic
 Topic;
• Area within a given field of study that the researcher explore in his
research
 Types of Research topic
1. Indicative type: state the subject of the proposal rather than
expected out put
2. Hanging type: too long and have two parts
 General part
 Stated in general topic and followed by the specific
 Specific part
 State the particular case or area of the proposal focus
3. Question Type: ask for or check for validity, application,
significance or impact.
 Student Activity
Write your;
1. Research Topic;
2. Statement of the Problem
3. Research question
4. Research objectives
 General objective
 Specific objective
5. Review of literature
4.Research Methodology

Methodology
Vs.
Methods
Research- Methodology
 Methodology;

a way to systematically solve the research problem

 the philosophy or the general principle which will guide your

research.
 various steps that are generally adopted by the researcher in

studying his research problem along with the logic behind them
 the overall approach to studying your topic and includes issues you

need to think about such as the constraints, dilemmas and ethical

choices within your research.
Research- Methodology
 Methodology;

a science of studying how research is done scientifically.

the various steps that are generally adopted by a researcher

in studying his research problem along with the logic behind

them
 there are two basic approaches to research
Quantitative Approach

 Qualitative Approach
Research- Methodology
 Quantitative Approach.
 generation of data in quantitative form which can be subjected to
rigorous quantitative analysis in a formal and rigid fashion
 Quantitative research generates statistics through the use of large-
scale survey research, using methods such as questionnaires or
structured interviews.
 In quantitative research you can define your research methods early
in the planning stage.
 based on the measurement of quantity or amount, applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity
 can be further sub-classified into inferential, experimental and
simulation approaches to research.
Research- Methodology
 Qualitative Approach.
• Concerned with subjective assessment of attitudes, opinions and
behaviour
• a function of researcher’s insights and impressions
• generates results either in non-quantitative form or in the form
which are not subjected to rigorous quantitative analysis
• Qualitative research explores attitudes, behaviour and experiences
through such methods as interviews or focus groups
• the techniques of focus group interviews, projective techniques and
depth interviews are used
• in some types of qualitative research it may be difficult to define
your methods specifically
Research- Methodology
 The basic types of research;
i. Descriptive;
• includes surveys and fact-finding enquiries of different kinds.
• The major purpose of descriptive research is description of the state of affairs
as it exists at present
• the researcher has no control over the variables; he can only report what has
happened or what is happening.
• The methods of research utilized in descriptive research are survey methods of
all kinds, including comparative and correlational methods.
ii. Analytical;
• the researcher has to use facts or information already available, and analyze
these to make a critical evaluation of the material.
iii. Historical:
• utilizes historical sources like documents, remains, etc. to study events or
ideas of the past, including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote
point of time.
Research- Methodology
 The basic types of research methodology;
iv. Explanatory:
• The objective of exploratory research is the development of
hypotheses rather than their testing
v. Case study or in-depth approaches to reach the basic causal
relations.
• Such studies usually go deep into the causes of things or events
that interest us, using very small samples and very deep probing
data gathering devices.
vi. Experimental
Research Methods
 Methods
 All those methods/ techniques for the conduction of research usually related
with data collection
 refer to the methods the researchers use in performing research operations
 research methods are the tools you use to collect your data.
 Can be viewed in three groups
i. Data collection methods
• Interview, questionnaire, observation etc
ii. Data analysis methods
• Statistical calculations
iii. Result evaluation methods
• Accuracy evaluation
 Methods of research refers to how the research to be undertaken are to be
carried out.
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
TYPES OF DATA’S
• Primary data
 The primary data are those which are collected afresh and for
the first time, and thus happen to be original in character
• Secondary data
 The secondary data are those which have already been
collected by someone else and which have already been passed
through the statistical process.
 sources of literatures; Published and unpublished
 The methods of collecting primary and secondary data differ since
primary data are to be originally collected, while in case of secondary data
the nature of data collection work is merely that of compilation.
Research Methods
 COLLECTION OF PRIMARY DATA
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Interviews
• Unstructured; in-depth interviews, life history interviews where the
researcher attempts to achieve a holistic understanding of the
interviewees’ point of view or situation.
• Semi-structured; the researcher wants to know specific information
which can be compared and contrasted with information gained in
other interviews.
 Interview Schedule: a list of specific questions or a list of topics to be
discussed to each interview to ensure continuity.
• Structured interviews; frequently used in market research.
 used in quantitative research and can be conducted face-to-face or over the
telephone, sometimes with the aid of lap-top computers
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Focus groups; discussion groups or group interviews.
• A number of people are asked to come together in a group to
discuss a certain issue.
• The discussion is led by a moderator or facilitator who introduces
the topic, asks specific questions, controls digressions and stops
break-away conversations.
• He/she makes sure that no one person dominates the discussion
whilst trying to ensure that each of the participants makes a
contribution
• may be recorded using visual or audio recording equipment.
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Questionnaires;
• Closed-ended:
 used to generate statistics in quantitative research,
• open-ended:
 used in qualitative research, although some researchers will quantify
the answers during the analysis stage
 The questionnaire does not contain boxes to tick, but instead leaves a
blank section for the respondent to write in an answer
• combination of the two:
 use a combination of both open and closed questions
Research Methods
 Data collection methods
• Interview, focus groups, questionnaire and observation
 Participant observation;
• There are two main ways in which researchers observe:
 Direct observation; used in areas such as health and psychology
o involves the observation of a ‘subject’ in a certain situation and
often uses technology such as visual recording equipment or
one-way mirrors.
 Participant observation.
o done by immersing themselves within that culture.
o take months or years, as they need to build up a lasting and
trusting relationship with those people being studied
Research Methods
 Data Analysis methods

 after collection the data has to be processed and

analyzed in accordance with the outline laid down for
the purpose at the time of developing the research plan.
 This is essential for a scientific study and for ensuring

that we have all relevant data for making contemplated

comparisons and analysis
Research Methods
Processing and Analysis Data
• processing implies editing, coding, classification and tabulation
of collected data so that they are amenable to analysis.
• analysis refers to the computation of certain measures along with
searching for patterns of relationship that exist among data-groups
• “in the process of analysis, relationships or differences supporting
or conflicting with original or new hypotheses should be subjected
to statistical tests of significance to determine with what validity
data can be said to indicate any conclusions”.
• analysis of data - involves a number of closely related operations
which are performed with the purpose of summarizing the collected
data and organizing these in such a manner that they answer the
research question(s)
Research Methods
 Processing operation
1. Editing;
• a process of examining the collected raw data (specially in surveys) to detect errors and omissions and
to correct these when possible.
 field editing
 Central editing.

2. Coding
• the process of assigning numerals or other symbols to answers so that responses can be put into a
limited number of categories or classes.
3. Classification
• the process of arranging data in groups or classes on the basis of common characteristics
 Classification according to attributes
 Classification according to class-intervals
4. Tabulation
• to arrange the same in some kind of concise and logical order
• the process of summarizing raw data and displaying the same in compact form (i.e., in the form of
statistical tables) for further analysis
• An orderly arrangement of data in columns and rows
Research Methods
Elements / types of Analysis
 computation of certain indices or measures along with searching for patterns of
relationship that exist among the data groups
 involves estimating the values of unknown parameters of the population and testing
of hypotheses for drawing inferences
 categorized as descriptive analysis and inferential analysis
 “Descriptive analysis is largely the study of distributions of one variable. This study
provides us with profiles of companies, work groups, persons and other subjects on any
of a multiple of characteristics such as size. Composition, efficiency, preferences, etc.”
 Correlation analysis
• Studies the joint variation of two or more variables for determining the amount of correlation
between two or more variables.
 Causal Analysis- can be termed as regression analysis
• concerned with the study of how one or more variables affect changes in another variable.
• a study of functional relationships existing between two or more variables
Research Methods
Elements / types of Analysis
 Descriptive analysis.
 Inferential analysis
• concerned with the various tests of significance for testing hypotheses in order
to determine with what validity data can be said to indicate some conclusion or
conclusions.
• It is also concerned with the estimation of population values. It is mainly on the
basis of inferential analysis that the task of interpretation (i.e., the task of
drawing inferences and conclusions) is performed.
Research Methods
 Data Interpretation
 After collecting and analyzing the data, the researcher has to
accomplish the task of drawing inferences followed by report writing.
 It is only through interpretation that the researcher can expose
relations and processes that underlie his findings.
 Interpretation refers to the task of drawing inferences from the
collected facts after an analytical and/or experimental study
 it is a search for broader meaning of research findings
 interpretation has two major aspects
i. the effort to establish continuity in research through linking the
results of a given study with those of another
ii. the establishment of some explanatory concepts.
Research Methods
 Data Interpretation
 Interpretation is concerned with relationships within the collected
data, partially overlapping analysis.
• also extends beyond the data of the study to include the results of
other research, theory and hypotheses.”
• is the device through which the factors that seem to explain what has
been observed by researcher in the course of the study can be better
understood and it also provides a theoretical conception which can
serve as a guide for further researches
Research Methods
 Techniques Interpretation
• The technique of interpretation often involves the following steps:
i. Researcher must give reasonable explanations of the relations which he has found
and he must interpret the lines of relationship in terms of the underlying processes
and must try to find out the thread of uniformity that lies under the surface layer
of his diversified research findings
ii. Extraneous information, if collected during the study, must be considered while
interpreting the final results of research study, for it may prove to be a key factor
in understanding the problem under consideration.
iii. It is advisable, before embarking upon final interpretation, to consult someone
having insight into the study and who is frank and honest and will not hesitate to
point out omissions and errors in logical argumentation.
iv. Researcher must accomplish the task of interpretation only after considering all
relevant factors affecting the problem to avoid false generalization. He must be in
no hurry while interpreting results, for quite often the conclusions, which appear
to be all right at the beginning, may not at all be accurate.
5. Research Design

Research Design
Vs.
Sampling Design
Research Design
 “A research design is the arrangement of conditions
for collection and analysis of data in a manner that
aims to combine relevance to the research purpose
with economy in procedure.” (Claire Selltiz, 1962, p.
50)
the conceptual structure within which research is
conducted; it constitutes the blueprint for the
collection, measurement and analysis of data.
includes an outline of what the researcher will do
from writing the hypothesis and its operational
implications to the final analysis of data.
Research Design
includes an outline of what the researcher will do.
(i) What is the study about?
(ii) Why is the study being made?
(iii) Where will the study be carried out?
(iv) What type of data is required?
(v) Where can the required data be found?
(vi) What periods of time will the study include?
(vii) What will be the sample design?
(viii) What techniques of data collection will be used?
(ix) How will the data be analyzed?
(x) In what style will the report be prepared?
Research Design
the overall research design into the following parts:
i. Sampling Design
• deals with the method of selecting items to be observed for the
given study;
ii. Observational Design
• relates to the conditions under which the observations are to be
made
iii. Statistical Design
• concerns with the question of how many items are to be observed
and how the information and data gathered are to be analyzed
iv. Operational Design
• deals with the techniques by which the procedures specified in the
sampling, statistical and observational designs can be carried out
Research Design
 Sampling Design
• A sample design is a definite plan for obtaining a sample from a
given population.
• It refers to the technique or the procedure the researcher would adopt
in selecting items for the sample.
 the number of items to be included in the sample i.e., the size of the sample.
 Sample design is determined before data are collected
• Sampling is a procedure of selection of a representative portion of a
population
• Research participants or target groups or population
• A population - refers to all members of any well-defined set or group of
people or objects which is the focus of the investigation and from which a
sample is drawn.
• A sample -refers to a subgroup or portion of the population selected to
represent the population.
Research Design
 Steps in Sample Design
• clearly define the set of objects, technically called the Universe, to be
studied
• decide one or more of sample units that has to be selected for his study.
• Prepare comprehensive, correct, reliable and appropriate source list from
which sample is to be drawn
• Decide the number of items to be selected from the universe to constitute
a sample.
• determining the question of the specific population parameters which are
of interest.
• Budget constraint
• decide the type of sample he will use i.e. decide about the technique to be
used in selecting the items for the sample.
Research Design
 types of Sampling
 Probability sampling
• also known as ‘random sampling’ or ‘chance sampling’.
• every item of the universe has an equal chance of inclusion in the sample.
• It is a lottery method in which individual units are picked up from the whole group not
deliberately but by some mechanical process.
• it is blind chance alone that determines whether one item or the other is selected.
 Types of probability sampling
 Random sampling ensures the law of Statistical Regularity which states that
if on an average the sample chosen is a random one, the sample will have the
same composition and characteristics as the universe.
 Systematic sampling
 Stratified sampling
 Cluster sampling
 Area Sampling
 Multi-stage sampling
Research Design
 types of Sampling
Non-probability sampling
• sampling procedure which does not afford any basis for estimating the probability
that each item in the population has of being included in the sample.
• it is known as deliberate sampling, purposive sampling and judgment sampling
 items for the sample are selected deliberately by the researcher; his choice
concerning the items remains supreme.
 the organizers of the inquiry purposively choose the particular units of the
universe for constituting a sample on the basis that the small mass that they so
select out of a huge one will be typical or representative of the whole.
Types of non-probability sampling
1. Quota sampling
2. Purposive Sampling
3. Convenience Sampling /accidental sampling/
4. Snowball Sampling /chain referral sampling/
Research Design
 basic Sampling Design
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
Validity

• refers to the accuracy or truthfulness of a measurement.

• Are we measuring what we think we are?

• There are at least three types of validity that should be

addressed and you should state what steps you took to

assess validity.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
 Face validity refers to the likelihood that a question will be

misunderstood or misinterpreted. Pretesting or validating a survey is a

good way to increase the likelihood of face validity.
• The content validity: refers to whether an instrument provides

adequate coverage of a topic. Expert opinions, literature searches, and

pretest open-ended questions help to establish content validity.
 Construct validity refers to the theoretical foundations underlying a

particular scale or measurement. It looks at the underlying theories or

constructs that explain a phenomena.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
Reliability is synonymous with repeatability or stability. A

measurement that yields consistent results over time is said

to be reliable. When a measurement is prone to random error,
it lacks reliability.
There are three basic methods to test reliability :
1. Test-retest,
2. Equivalent form, and
3. Internal consistency.
Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
methods to test reliability :

 Most research uses some form of internal consistency.

When there is a scale of items all attempting to measure the

same construct, then we would expect a large degree of

coherence in the way people answer those items. Various
statistical tests can measure the degree of coherence.
Another way to test reliability is to ask the same question

with slightly different wording in different parts of the

Validity and Reliability of the Instrument
The correlation between the items is a measure of their

reliability.
 Assumptions.

• All research studies make assumptions.

• The most obvious is that the sample represents the population.

• Another common assumptions are that an instrument has validity and is measuring

the desired constructs.

• Still another is that respondents will answer a survey truthfully.

• The important point is for the researcher to state specifically what assumptions are

being made.
 6.Proposal writing

Thesis proposal and it components

Proposal Writing
Research Proposal
o the presentation of an idea that you wish to pursue.
o a brief description of a research plan, which will be conducted
later.
 A research proposal is NOT a project to be thrown together in
one night with ideas off the top of your head.
 The process of writing a research proposal includes several
stages
 Choice of research proposal topics
 Writing a Research Proposal Paper
 When writing your research proposal involves filling out the
following question;
Proposal Writing
• When writing your research proposal;
1. Your opening paragraph should contain answers to the following questions:
• What do you propose in your paper?
• Is your project beneficial? Who will benefit and how?
• Who is going to be involved in your research?
• What is the duration of your project?
• What is the expected outcome of your research?
2. do not forget that your body paragraph is based on certain questions too:
• Why should your proposal be supported?
• What evidence do you have to prove that this project is a worthwhile one?
• What are your main arguments and supporting facts?
3. when you are going to write the last part of your research proposal, base it
on the following points:
• What is the significance of your study for the society, science, and other fields?
• Will you continue writing your research proposal, deepening its focus?
Proposal Writing
Structure of the Research Proposal  METHODOLOGY
 INTRODUCTION
a. Description of the Study Area and
a. Background of the Study Study Population
b. Statement of the Problem
b. Study Design and Study Procedure
c. Hypotheses (if needed)
i. Research Design
d. Objectives of the Study
e. The Research Questions ii. Type and source of data
f. Significance of the Study iii. Sampling Design
g. Scope and Limitations of the Study iv. Data Collection methods
h. Definition of Terms v. Data analysis tool
 LITERATURE REVIEW vi. Data presentation
a. Introduction
 Work plan and schedule
b. Presentation of the Review
c. Synthesis of the Review  Financial Requirements
d. Theoretical Framework of the Study  BIBLIOGRAPHY/ References
e. Conceptual Framework of the Study
 APPENDICES
Ethical Issues in Research.

Research Ethics
How to Avoid Plagiarism
Research Ethics
rules and regulations set down by institution
 Other rules which all researchers, whatever their subject,
must follow rules of ethics and morality
 ethics and morals ;
• Morals - generally refer to an unwritten set of values that
provide a frame of reference that we use to help our
decision making and regulate our behavior
• Ethics - generally refer to a written code of value
principles that we use in a particular context
 Research ethics are principles that we use to make
decisions about what is acceptable practice in any research
project.
Research Ethics
Why Do We Need Ethical Codes?
 Research participants have moral and legal rights
 researchers do not violate these rights
 A code of research ethics is required to ensure that there
are agreed standards of acceptable behavior for researchers,
which protect participants’ moral and legal rights.
ensure that there is good scientific practice in research.
It is essential that the public should be able to trust the
results of research programs as these findings may impact
significantly on their lives.
Codes of research ethics protects against scientific
dishonesty and fraudulent results.
Research Ethics
Models for Research Ethics
1. The Value-Free Model. The idea here is that rigorous research
will yield results that can be used for anyone’s benefit, for good or
evil, for better or worse, and that in the long run, good will win out
over evil if researchers adhere to methodological rigor and
consistency.
2. Social Problems Model. Research is problem solving, all about
understanding the world we live in a little better so that we can modify
it toward some greater good.
3. Marxist Model. There are three kinds of research: trivial; that
which aids the bourgeoisie (or haves); and Marxist research which aids
the proletariat (the have-nots).
Research Ethics
Models for Research Ethics
4. Vulnerable Population Model. Research ought to be used to
uplift or empower those social groups who lack power in society,
especially by qualitative research which gives them a ‘voice.’
5. Government Pawn Model. Research ought to be of use to
government decision makers so that better public policy can be made.
6. Corporate Shill Model. Research should be used to promote the
interests of wealthy, powerful individuals or corporations with
researchers for sale in ‘think tanks.’
7. Self-Imposed Morality Model. The researcher simply refuses to
cave in to any pressures or ideology.
Research Ethics
Ethical Issues in Research.
Selltiz (1976) grouped into ten categories the questionable
practices involving research participants.
 Involving people in research without their knowledge or
consent.
 Coercing people to participate.
 Withholding from the participants the true nature of
research.
 Deceiving the research participants.
Research Ethics
Ethical Issues in Research.
Selltiz (1976) grouped into ten categories the questionable practices
involving research participants.
 Leading the research participants to commit acts which
diminish their self-respect.
 Violating the right to self-determination: research on
behavior control and character change.
 Exposing the research participants to physical or mental
stress.
 Invading the privacy of the research participants.
 Withholding benefits from participants in control group.
 Failing to treat research participants fairly and to show them
consideration and respect.
Research Ethics
Basic Ethical Principles
 Respect for Individuals. It involves acknowledging the
autonomous of individuals and protecting those with diminished
autonomy.
• Anonymity
• Confidentiality.
• Informed Consent.
 Beneficence. The term beneficence refers to being charitable or
acting with kindness. In research, it is an obligation to do no harm
and to maximize any benefits while minimizing possible harm. The
issue of beneficence relates to determining whether the benefits
outweigh the risks for the participants of the study. To minimize
harm, we must identify the risks of the research on human
participants.
Research Ethics
Basic Ethical Principles
 Justice. The principle of justice finds its application in the moral
requirement that fair procedures and outcomes be used in the selection
of research subjects. Justice is the fairness of distribution of benefits
and risks among all individuals. This principle can be formulated in
four ways: to each person an equal share, to each person according to
individual need, to each person according to individual effort and to
each person according to merit.
 Laundering data. It is a way of statistically manipulating the data
collected to reduce errors and make the findings more accurate. One
way one can achieve this is by removing the abnormal responses from
the data.
 Faking data. It is making up desired data or eliminating undesired data
in research findings. One example of faking data would be to duplicate
or multiply the answers ten times and now have fifty responses.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
 Plagiarism
• plagiarism means taking credit for work that is not one’s
own, either in whole or in part.
• Providing proper citations is more than a matter of ethical
integrity in research – it is a form of courtesy shown to other
authors and researchers.
 Cheating
• means trying to gain an unfair advantage over fellow
students or attempting to deceive your adviser in coursework
or during examinations.
• when a student presents data which he claims was the result
of a piece of research but was actually invented or taken
from somewhere else.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
 Plagiarism
Plagiarism occurs when someone tries to pass off another’s work, thoughts or ideas
as their own, whether deliberately or unintentionally, without appropriate
acknowledgment. Plagiarism can be:

1) Partial – where it relates to poor paraphrasing or the inclusion of several sentences of

another’s work without appropriate acknowledgment.

2) Complete – the substantial and unauthorized use of the work or ideas of another person
without acknowledgment of the source, including work bought from another person.

3) Self-plagiarism/duplication – copying work that was original, complete and submitted

by the student and is again resubmitted for another purpose without acknowledgment.

4) Collusion – where a student produces work with others without acknowledgment.

How to Avoid Plagiarism?
How to Avoid Plagiarism.
 When you are reading, get into the habit of noting down the exact source
of what you have read. You need to include details of the following:
 author
 article or journal title
 book title
 page number
 publisher
 year of publication
 Keeping these detailed notes will save you a lot of time when it comes to
preparing your bibliography and footnotes. In the bibliography, there is
an accepted format for presenting those references. Most institutions
have their own institutional format standards.
How to Avoid Plagiarism?
How to Avoid Plagiarism

YOU MUST ENSURE THAT YOU

ACKNOWLEDGE THE IDEAS AND WORK

OF OTHERS WHEN SUBMITTING

COURSEWORK.
7. Research Report writing

Research Result and Reporting

Research Reporting
Research papers usually have five chapters with
well-established sections in each chapter.
Readers of the paper will be looking for these
chapters and sections so you should not deviate from
the standard format unless you are specifically
requested to do so by your instructor.
The most commonly used style for writing research
reports is called "APA" and the rules are described in
the Publication Manual of the American
Psychological Association.
Research Reporting
Any library or bookstore will have it readily
available.
The style guide contains hundreds of rules for
grammar, layout, and syntax.
Avoid the use of first person pronouns.
o Refer to yourself or the research team in third person.
Instead of saying "I will ..." or "We will ...",
o say something like "The researcher will ..." or "The
research team will ...".
Research Reporting
Result
Discussion
Conclusion
Recommendation
References list