Course Code: 19ASC304A Course Title: Aerospace Propulsion - 1

Course Code: 19ASC304A
Course Title: Aerospace Propulsion – 1
Session: Introduction to Aircraft Propulsion
Course Leader: Dr. Mahesh K. Varpe
Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering 1

Faculty of Engineering & Technology © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Lecture Objective
At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:
• Define propulsion
• Comprehend the evolution of propulsion system technology
2
Faculty of Engineering & Technology © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Introduction to Aircraft Propulsion
Propulsion: The act of propelling,

the state of being propelled,
a propelling force or impulse
Propel –
to drive, or cause to move, forward or onward.
Bodies; Cause; Effect
3
Faculty of Engineering & Technology ©M.©
S. Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
History and classification of aero-engines (Piston)
• In 1930 Wright Brothers flew First aircraft powered by a single
piston engine , no passengers, neither a fuselage nor landing
gears.
shaft power of 12 hp,

power/weight ratio 0.05 hp/lb.
• Next 4 decades witnessed improvement of the overall efficiency

by 1 order and the power/weight ratio to 0.8 hp/lb.
4
Important engines of 1909
Engine Valves-mechanically to automatic inlet valves

In 1910-1918 Gnome air-cooled rotary engine was dominant, later
became obsolete by the limitation on speed due to centrifugal stress
5
Then water-cooled V-type engine became dominant.
Jenny airplane with OX-5 engine, 1915
Curtiss OX-5 water-cooled V-8 engine
Turbo-supercharged versions held the world's altitude records in

1920, 1921, and 1922, and in 1924
6
Piston Engines After 1918
Further development of the liquid-cooled engine of the all-cast type, chiefly
for military purposes
The development of the air-cooled radial engine to a place of dominance in all
but fighter-type military and small civilian aircraft
The advent of 4-cylinder vertical in-line, and later, opposed-cylinder,
horizontal, air-cooled engines for light aircraft
7
Important propeller developments
8
Engine
Development
9
• Great improvement was achieved by engine design
structures and materials, advanced fuel injection,
advanced aerodynamic shapes of the propeller blades,
variable-pitch propellers, and engine superchargers.
• The overall efficiency (engine and propeller) reached
about 28%.
• The power output of the largest engine amounted to
about 5000 hp.
• In 1909, the Wright brothers built the first military
aircraft under government contract.
• During World War I, aircraft technology progressed
rapidly.
10
• The flight speed reached about 150 mph, and the
engine power attained 400 hp.
• At the end of World War II, the flight speed of
propeller aircraft reached about 400-450 mph –
Performance limit of the propeller/reciprocating engine
propulsion system
Small aircrafts still continues with the piston engine and

propeller
11
History and classification of aero-engines(Gas turbine)
Piston engines are no longer alone in propulsion, though they are
still dominant in small aircraft segment.
In 1930s Turbojet engines (patent issued to Frank Whittle in Great
Britain) made an entry and took a reasonable share in propulsion
applications (M &C)
jet engine
12
History and classification of aero-engines
• Whittle engine- compression by double-sided centrifugal

compressor.
• The axial compressor had not been developed due to
aerodynamic stability complications.
• The combustion takes place in a reverse-flow burner that
is very large relative to other engine components.
• Reverse-flow combustor provides flame stability in the
burner
• Single-stage axial flow turbine drives compressor
13
Birth of Jet Engine Technology
• In 1934, Wagner conceived the idea of an axial-flow propeller
gas turbine
• Propeller power input ~ 50% of the total power output-favored
long-range Transport
• In 1936, he investigated the "limiting case" of zero propeller
power input, which constituted a turbojet-a high-speed aircraft
• Wagner's design was the utilization of 50% reaction
turbomachinery (or symmetric blading).
• A compressor with 50% reaction blading has the greatest
pressure ratio and efficiency for a given blade approach Mach
number; but the design is difficult because of the inherently
strong three-dimensional flow phenomena.
14
In same period Hans-Joachim Pabst von Ohain invented a
turbojet engine in Germany that was granted a patent in
1936.
Von Ohain’s engine was the
first to be developed ahead of
the Whittle engine and flew on
the first jet-powered aircraft,
Heinkel 178, in 1939.
15
Messerschmitt Me 262 - First production jet aircraft
• In 1937, von Ohain’s engine-He S-1 turbojet engine with

hydrogen fuel was tested and produced a thrust of 250
lbs at 10,000 rpm.
• This engine has many modern gas turbine features such
as axial-flow compressor and a straight through flow
combustor with air-cooling of the turbine and the nozzle
16
Jumo 004B
engine
The engine thrust ∼2000 lb at an airflow of 46.6 lb/s.

Engine pressure ratio is 3.14
Turbine inlet temperature is 1427◦F,
SFC(specific fuel consumption) is 1.4 lbm/h/lbf-thrust.
Engine dry weight is ∼1650 lb,
D and L ∼30 and 152 in.,
Engine component efficiencies: compressor- 78%,
Combustor-95% , and turbine 79.5%. 17
Development goals
1) Higher overall efficiency
2) Larger-power-output engines,
3) Larger ratios of power output to engine weight, volume, and
frontal area,
4) Greater service life, endurance, and reliability,
5) Strong reduction of adverse environmental exhaust gases,
6) Reduced noise.
Need of research in Aerodynamics, combustion, structures,

materials, controls, Cooling technology …
18
Extras
Pg141, AARMS (17) 2 (2018) 19

• In the 1950s two other engine types- turboprop and
turboshaft emerged to propel aircrafts and rotorcrafts.
• Late 1950s and early 1960s witnessed turbofan engines (or
bypass turbojet engines). These are the present prevailing
engines which power faster, quieter, cleaner, and heavier
aircrafts.
Trend in compressor pressure ratios
Early 2018 50:1 to 60:1 20

• Early 1950s, jet aircraft transgressed the sonic speed.
• Mid-1950s, the first supersonic jet bomber (B-58 Hustler)
appeared, and later the XB-70 reached about Mach 3.
• In 1960s, the high-bypass-ratio engine appeared, which
revolutionized military transportation (the C5A transport
aircraft).
• End of the 1960s, the second generation of commercial jet
aircraft came into existence-widebody aircraft.
Boeing 747- passenger capacity ~400
• In the 1970s, supersonic Concorde- flight speed of 1500 mph
(the third generation of commercial transport) appeared with
an equivalent output of about 100,000 hp
Aircraft has outranked all other modes of passenger transportation 21
22
Impact on the Total Aircraft Performance
23
24
Current Status
Fuel efficiency increased by 10%
Overall pressure ratio 61:1 GE9X for Boeing 777X
TSFC 5% lower
Initial thrust 470 kN
Bypass ratio is 10:1.
Fan diameter 340 cm with 16 blades,
Fan blades material -steel leading
edges and glass-fibre trailing edges
to better absorb bird impacts with
more flexibility than carbon fiber
Fourth generation carbon fiber
composite materials makes them
lighter, thinner, stronger, and more
efficient
25
Current Status
Trent 7000 for

Airbus A330neo
Mass flow: 1.3 t/s

Maximum thrust: 324.0 kN
Bypass ratio: 10:1
Overall pressure ratio: 50:1
Turbine inlet temperature: > 1,835 K
Specific fuel consumption: -10% lower
Thrust-to-weight ratio: 5.13
26
Air breathing Propulsion Systems for Supersonic and
Hypersonic Speeds
• In air breathing propulsion systems, the combined
compression by ram and turbo compressor is of great benefit
to the thermodynamic propulsion process up to flight Mach
numbers approaching 3
• Mach number >3, additional compression by a turbo
compressor would be a disadvantage and the engine begins to
operate essentially as a ramjet.
• 3.5<M<5, pure subsonic combustion ramjet.
• M>6, Supersonic combustion due to high P and T
Dissociation of the combustor exhaust flow,
Too high pressure for Brayton cycle and structure
Hydrogen fuel, greatest heat and F/A concentration range
27
Aero Engine Requirements
• Reliable, as losing power in an airplane, is a substantially
greater problem than in road vehicles
• Operate at extreme temperature, pressure, and speed
• Light weight as a heavy engine increases the empty weight
of the aircraft and reduces its payload
• Powerful, to overcome the weight and drag of the aircraft
• Small and easily streamlined to minimize the created drag
• Field repairable to keep the cost of replacement down.
Minor repairs should be relatively inexpensive and possible
outside of specialized shops
• Fuel efficient to give the aircraft the range and
manoeuvrability the design requires
• Capable of operating at sufficient altitude for the aircraft
• Least Pollution- noise & emission ©M.©
28
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Piston Engine Classification
29
Piston Engine Classification: In- Line Engine
Narrow frontal area for low drag

High ground clearance even with short landing gear
Engine is long and heavy

Cooling Issues
Poor power-to-weight ratio
Dynamic Balancing-Vibrations 30
Piston Engine Classification: Opp.
Opp. Cylinder
Smooth running engine
Horizontal / Vertical Axis
Opp. Piston
31
Piston Engine Classification:
Radial Rotary
Smooth operation with odd no. Cylinders High specific power and power-to-weight ratio
Favorable power to weight ratio Severe gyroscopic effects-Control issues
Effective cooling, better dynamic balancing Heavy Fuel consumption
High Frontal Area-Drav Leakage Issues giving out Fumes 32
Piston Engine Classification:
High horsepower per displacement

Does not need a separate system
Light, compact, vibration-less
High power-to-weight ratio
Not susceptible to “shock-cooling”
during descent
Rotors cannot seize, since rotor
casings expand more than rotors
33
34
Engine Performance Parameters
Thrust Force
Thrust (T) or force is the Net force responsible for propelling a system .
S.I. units is N (Newton)
Uninstalled Thrust- thrust with Engine only

Installed Thrust- thrust with Engine mounted on Aircraft
Finstalled = Funinstalled − Dnacelle Pylon Nacelle 36

Thrust
Assumptions:
1. The flow is steady within the control volume; thus,
all the properties within the control do not change with time.
2. The external flow is reversible; thus, the pressures and velocities are
constants over the control surface except over the exhaust area Pe of the
37
Faculty engine.
of Engineering & Technology ©M.©
U- Flight speed
Conservation of mass across the Engine gives
Where
The fuel flow rate is thus expressed as
The fuel-to-air ratio
Conservation of mass or Continuity Equation Over The Control Volume
Where is the side air leaving the control volume
Rearranging and applying Eq. (A),

38
Conservation of momentum or Equilibrium of forces in X direction
Sides of the control volume are assumed sufficient distant from the engine,
then the side mass flow rate leaves the control volume nearly
in the x-direction.
Applying Eq. (C)
From Eqs. (D) and (E)

39
From Eq. (B)
Net thrust =
Gross thrust=
Momentum thrust=
Pressure thrust=
Momentum drag or Ram drag =
Net thrust = Gross thrust – Momentum drag

Net thrust= Momentum thrust + Pressure thrust – Momentum drag 40
Propulsive Efficiency
Conversion of the kinetic energy of air when passes
through the engine into a propulsive power
OR
41
~ 1/( )
42
The idling turbojet engines of a landing airplane produce
forward thrust when operating in a normal manner, but
they can produce reverse thrust if the jet is properly
deflected. Suppose that, while the aircraft rolls down the
runway at 180 km/h, the idling engine consumes air at 40
kg/s and produces an exhaust velocity of 150 m/s.
(a) What is the forward thrust of the engine?

(b) What is the magnitude and direction (forward or
reverse) if the exhaust is deflected 90 and the mass flow is
kept constant?
43
Solution
Forward thrust has positive values and reverse thrust has
negative values.
(a) The flight speed is U=180/3.6=50 m/s.
The thrust force represents the horizontal or the x-

component of the momentum equation.
T= 40*(150–50)=4000 N
44
(b) Since the exhaust velocity is now vertical due to thrust
reverse application, then it has a zero horizontal
component; thus, the thrust equation is
45
A fighter airplane is being refuelled in flight using the hose-
and drogue system as shown in Fig. at the rate of 300
gal/min of fuel having a specific gravity of 0.7. The inside
diameter of hose is 0.12 m. The fluid pressure at the
entrance of the fighter plane is 30 kPa gage. What
additional thrust does the plane need to develop to
maintain the constant velocity it had before the hookup?
46
Assume steady fuel flow
Let Tx be the additional thrust
Vx be the velocity of fuel flow
Linear momentum equation in the x-direction
47
48
Piston Engines and Propellers
Aerodynamics and Thermodynamics of Reciprocating ICE
4S Engine
49
4-stroke internal combustion engine
In 1-Cycle of operation , Piston executes four distinct strokes within the
cylinder for every two revolutions of the crankshaft. C O
O C C C C C
O 5
2 3
1 4
1 Cycle of Operation 50
Intake: With the intake valve open, the piston makes an intake
stroke to draw a fresh charge into the cylinder. For spark-ignition
engines, the charge is a combustible mixture of fuel and air. Air
alone is the charge in compression-ignition engines
Compression: With both valves closed, the piston undergoes a
compression stroke, raising the temperature and pressure of
the charge. This requires work input from the piston to the
cylinder contents. Combustion is induced near the end of the
compression stroke in spark-ignition engines by the spark plug.
In compression ignition engines, combustion is initiated by
injecting fuel into the hot compressed air, beginning near the
end of the compression stroke and continuing through the first
part of the expansion. Combustion process results in a high-
pressure, high temperature gas mixture. 51
Power Generation: A power stroke follows the compression stroke,
during which the gas mixture
expands and work is done on the piston as it returns to bottom
dead center.
Exhaust: The piston then executes an exhaust stroke in which the
burned gases are purged
from the cylinder through the open exhaust valve.
52
Air-Standard Analysis
2
4
5
O 1
Practical Cycle Ideal Otto Cycle
2 Isentropic & 2 Iso-choric process

53
To simplify the analysis of l.C. engines, air standard cycles
are conceived.
In an air standard cycle, a certain mass of air operates in a
complete thermodynamic cycle, where heat is added and
rejected with external heat reservoirs, and
All the processes in the cycle are reversible.
Air is assumed to behave as an ideal gas,

and its specific heats are assume to be constant.
These air standard cycles are so conceived that they

correspond to the operations of intimal combustion
engines
54
1. Isobaric Processes: (0 -1); (5-1)
The almost-constant pressure intake and exhaust strokes are
assumed to be constant pressure.
At WOT (Wide-Open Throttle or fully open throttle valve),
the intake stroke is assumed to be at a pressure of one
atmosphere.
At partially closed throttle or when supercharged, inlet pressure
will assume a constant value other than one atmosphere.
The exhaust stroke pressure is assumed constant at one
atmosphere.
55
Isentropic Processes: (1 -2); (3-4)

Compression and expansion strokes are approximated by
isentropic processes (reversible and adiabatic).
Lubrication minimizes the friction between piston
and cylinder walls. Heat transfer for any stroke is negligibly small
due to its very short time.
56
Isochoric Processes: (2-3); (4-5)
The combustion process is replaced by a heat addition process
from an external source at constant-volume process (Spark-
Ignition: SI cycle), a constantpressure process (Compression-
Ignition: CI cycle), or a combination of both
(Dual cycle)
Exhaust blow-down is approximated by a constant-volume
process
57
Compression ratio (rc) is
Ideal Gas
58
Isentropic process:
Work done for isentropic process from state (1) to state (2):
59
Otto Cycle
2 Isentropic -work transfers

2 Iso-choric - heat transfers
60
Process 0–1: Constant pressure suction (intake) stroke of air at
ambient pressure P0
Process 1–2: Isentropic compression stroke
61
Process 2–3: Constant-volume heat addition (combustion)
62
QHV is the heating value of fuel, while
AF= ma/mf is the air-to-fuel ratio.
Combustion process results in a gas mixture having the maximum-pressure

and maximum-temperature.
Combustion is induced near the end of the compression stroke by the spark
plug.
63
Process 3–4: Isentropic power or expansion stroke
64
Process 4–5: Constant volume heat rejection (exhaust blow-down)
Process 5–0: Constant pressure exhaust stroke at P0
65
Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle
closed system and disregarding the changes in kinetic and potential energies,
66
Since processes 1–2 and 3–4 are isentropic, v2 = v3 and v4 =v1.
67
Where
Monatomic gas (such as argon or helium, γ = 1.667)
68
Deviation from Ideal performance
• lower thermal efficiencies -25 to 30 %
• Sp. Heat α 1/T
• Irreversibilities
• Chemical Reactions- heterogeneous mixture
69
Power generation and fuel consumption
BRAKE POWER (BP) Watts
(Shaft Power )
Indicated power(I.P): Rate of work transfer from the gas within the
(P-V diagram) cylinder to the piston
70
Indicated work per cycle per cylinder
Wc,i=Area under Expansion curve – Area under Compression curve –area
under suction-area under exhaust
nR is the number of crank revolution for each power stroke per cylinder
For 4S engine nR =2 other wise 1
where Pf is frictional power
SPECIFIC POWER: Power per Piston Area
Mechanical efficiency 75 -90%
71
Compare The Utilization of Cylinder Volume in Reciprocating Piston Engines
Mean Effective Pressure (MEP):

A fictitious pressure that, if it acted on the piston during the entire
power stroke, would produce the same amount of network as that
produced during the actual cycle
MEP
72
Various mean effective pressure
friction mean effective pressure
73
Fuel Parameters
SI engine using gasoline fuel
CI-engine using diesel fuel
Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC): Fuel flow rate per unit power output
74
Indicated specific fuel consumption:
Also
75
Volumetric Efficiency (ηV)-Air-Intake or Swollowing Performance
(Air Filter, Carburetor, Intake Manifold and Intake Valve)
Volume flow rate of air into the intake system divided by the rate at which
volume is displaced by the piston:
.
Piston Speed SP= 2LN
76
Propulsive Efficiency
ratio of thrust power to the
brake power (~80 %)
T
Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume
4S Engine
2S Engine
77
Four-Stroke Diesel Engines (Diesel Cycle)
Cut-off Ratio
Used in Non-Airborne Apps.
78
79
80
81
Numerical on SI Engines for Aircraft
A four-cylinder 2.0 l, SI engine operates at WOT on a four stroke air
standard Otto cycle. The engine has a compression ratio of 8:1, a
stroke-to-bore ratio S/B=1.025 at 3000 rpm and mechanical
efficiency of 86 %. Air to fuel ratio AF=15, fuel heating value is
44,000 kJ/kg. At the start of compression stroke, conditions at the
cylinder are 100 kPa and 30oC. It is assumed that a 4 % exhaust
residual is left over from previous cycle.
1. Perform a complete thermodynamic analysis of the engine
2. Calculate thermal efficiency
3. Mean piston speed
4. Brake power
5. Brake specific fuel consumption
82
1. Displacement volume for one cylinder
WE
Compression ratio
WC
S 83
Air/gas properties at different states.
Mass of mixture at state (1)
84
Process 1–2 is an isentropic compression
85
Mass Of Mixture (Mm) Within The Cylinder Can Be Decomposed As
Residue from previous cycle
86
State 3:
87
State 4:Power stroke; isentropic expansion
Work produced in power expansion
88
Work absorbed in isentropic compression stroke
2. Thermal efficiency
OR
89
3. Mean piston speed
4. Brake power
work per cylinder
for one cycle:
90
5. Brake specific fuel consumption
Fuel mass flow rate
91
1. Volumetric efficiency based on atmospheric conditions
2. Brake mean effective pressure
3. Specific power
92
Aircraft Propellers
Aircraft propellers or airscrew convert rotary motion from piston engines or
turboprops to provide propulsive force (Thrust).
Propeller accelerates a large quantity of air through a small velocity change
Left or Right-handed propeller
Hub
Tip Tip
DxP ©M.©
93
Faculty of Engineering & Technology
Tip
Hub
94
Quad-Copter
(a) Pistonprop engines (b) Turboprop engine 95

• Bypass ratio can be between 30 and 100 to provide
higher propulsive efficiencies.
High Endurance
• The advanced propellers operate with relative supersonic tip
Mach number (MT∼1.1–1.15) without stalling.
• The cruise flight Mach number is increased to M0∼0.8–0.82.
• Turboprop engines, 80–90 % of the thrust is produced by a
turbine driven propeller and 10–20 % by the jet.
• Propellers produce 100 % of thrust force in piston engines
96
• The maximum flight speed of aircraft powered
aircraft is limited by the occurrence of sonic flow at the propeller
tips.
Max. Flight Mach no. 0.4–0.6 for conventional propellers
0.7–0.8 range for advanced turboprops
• Reduction gearbox adds to the engine weight and system
complexity with its attendant reliability and maintainability issues.
97
Propeller Types:
1. Fixed-Pitch
Wooden Propellers
Metal Propellers
2. Ground-Adjustable Propeller
3. Controllable-Pitch Propellers
4. Constant-Speed Propellers
5. Feathering Propellers
6. Reverse-Pitch Propellers
98
1. Fixed-Pitch
• Fixed Blade angle or blade pitch

• Simple operation and less expense
• Best efficiency at forwarding speeds
• Any change in those conditions reduces both the propeller and engine
efficiency.
• Metal propeller less prone to warping from damage due to heat or cold
• Carbon fiber blades are light weight, have high specific strength, stiffness
and excellent fatigue resistance, and its resistance to erosion are three
times that of aluminum alloys.
99
2. Ground-Adjustable Propeller
• The blade angle or pitch can only be changed when the propeller isn’t turning
100
3. Controllable-Pitch Propellers
• The Blade Pitch Or Angle Of A Controllable-pitch Propeller Can Be

Changed While The Aircraft Propeller Is Still Running
• The Number Of Pitch Positions Is Limited In The Available Pitch Range
• Pilot must change the pitch
• Performance Matching B/W Propeller And Engine Is Possible At Any
Flight Condition
101
4. Constant-Speed Propellers
The mechanism that allows a
constant-speed propeller to work is
known as
propeller governor.
A propeller governor senses the
aircraft engine’s speed and changes
the blade angle of the propeller to
maintain a specific rpm regardless
of the aircraft’s operational
conditions.
102
5. Feathering Propellers
If one or more engine fails, then these propellers reduce propeller drag to a
minimum. Feathering propellers can change the blade angle of a propeller to
approximately 90 degrees. Propellers are usually feathered when the engine
of the aircraft fails to generate the power required to turn the propeller.
103
6. Reverse-Pitch Propellers
Reverse-pitch propellers are

controllable propellers whose
blade angles may be changed to a
negative value in-flight. The
purpose of a reversible pitch is to
create a negative blade angle to
produce thrust in the opposite
direction
104
105

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Course Code: 19ASC304A Course Title: Aerospace Propulsion - 1

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Course Code: 19ASC304A

Course Title: Aerospace Propulsion – 1

Session: Introduction to Aircraft Propulsion

Course Leader: Dr. Mahesh K. Varpe

Department of Automotive and Aeronautical Engineering 1

At the end of this lecture, students will be able to:

Propulsion: The act of propelling,

Bodies; Cause; Effect

shaft power of 12 hp,

• Next 4 decades witnessed improvement of the overall efficiency

Engine Valves-mechanically to automatic inlet valves

Jenny airplane with OX-5 engine, 1915

Curtiss OX-5 water-cooled V-8 engine

Turbo-supercharged versions held the world's altitude records in

Small aircrafts still continues with the piston engine and

• Whittle engine- compression by double-sided centrifugal

Messerschmitt Me 262 - First production jet aircraft

• In 1937, von Ohain’s engine-He S-1 turbojet engine with

The engine thrust ∼2000 lb at an airflow of 46.6 lb/s.

Need of research in Aerodynamics, combustion, structures,

Pg141, AARMS (17) 2 (2018) 19

Early 2018 50:1 to 60:1 20

Trent 7000 for

Mass flow: 1.3 t/s

Narrow frontal area for low drag

Engine is long and heavy

High horsepower per displacement

Uninstalled Thrust- thrust with Engine only

Finstalled = Funinstalled − Dnacelle Pylon Nacelle 36

The fuel flow rate is thus expressed as

The fuel-to-air ratio

Conservation of mass or Continuity Equation Over The Control Volume

Where is the side air leaving the control volume

Rearranging and applying Eq. (A),

Applying Eq. (C)

From Eqs. (D) and (E)

Net thrust = Gross thrust – Momentum drag

(a) What is the forward thrust of the engine?

The thrust force represents the horizontal or the x-

Linear momentum equation in the x-direction

2 Isentropic & 2 Iso-choric process

Air is assumed to behave as an ideal gas,

These air standard cycles are so conceived that they

Isentropic Processes: (1 -2); (3-4)

2 Isentropic -work transfers

Process 1–2: Isentropic compression stroke

Combustion process results in a gas mixture having the maximum-pressure

Process 5–0: Constant pressure exhaust stroke at P0

where Pf is frictional power

SPECIFIC POWER: Power per Piston Area

Mechanical efficiency 75 -90%

Mean Effective Pressure (MEP):

friction mean effective pressure

SI engine using gasoline fuel

CI-engine using diesel fuel

Used in Non-Airborne Apps.

Mass of mixture at state (1)

Residue from previous cycle