Unit 1

Telecommunication Switching and
Network(140613/200613)
Dr. Hemant Choubey

Syllabus
• Unit 1 Introduction: Evolution of Telecommunications, Simple

Telephone Communication, Manual switching system, Strowger
Switching System, Crossbar Switching System, major
telecommunication Networks (PSTN, ISDN, WLAN, Ad Hoc Network).
• Unit 2 Switching: Circuit Switching, Store and Forward Switching,
Electronic Space Division Switching, Stored Program Control,
Centralized SPC, Distributed SPC, Enhanced Services, Two stage
networks, three stage network n-stage networks. Time multiplexed
Space Switching, Time Multiplexed time switching, combination
Switching, Three stage combination switching, n-stage combination
switching.
Syllabus
• Unit 3 Traffic Engineering: Network Traffic load and parameters, Grade of
service and blocking probability, Modeling Switching Systems, Incoming
Traffic and Service Time Characterization, Blocking Models and Loss
Estimates, Delay systems .
• Unit 4 Telephone Networks: Subscriber Loop Systems, Switching Hierarchy

and Routing, Transmission Plan, Transmission Systems, Numbering Plan,
Charging Plan, Signaling Techniques, In channel signaling, common channel
signaling, Cellular mobile telephony.
• Unit 5 Data networks: Data transmission in PSTNs, Modems, ISO-OSI/TCP-IP

Reference Model,Satellite based data networks, Data network standards
(ISDN, DSL / ADSL, Token Ring, Token BUS , Bluetooth , WLAN, ZigBee,
SONET / SDH).
Text book and Reference
• Text Book :
1. ThiagarajanVishwanathan, “Telecommunication
Switching Systems and Networks”; PHI Publications.
• Reference Books:
1. J. E. Flood, “Telecommunications Switching, Traffic
and Networks”, Pearson Education.
2. John C. Bellamy, “Digital Telephony”, Third Edition;
Wiley Publications
Unit I:Introduction
• Evolution of Telecommunications
• The first commercial telegraph line opens in London (1837)
• The first subsea telegraph line opens between England and
France (1850)
• German inventor Johann Reis transmits his voice to another
room using his “telephon” (1861)
• Edison creates the Quadruplex telegraph, capable of sending
two signals in each direction at once (1874)
• Alexander Graham Bell experiments with a “harmonic
telegraph” to squeeze ever more traffic down one telegraph
line (1874)
Unit I:Introduction
• Evolution of Telecommunications
Unit I:Introduction
Unit I:Introduction
In general if n entity is present then n(n-1)/2 link

Unit I:Introduction
Switching System
A Switching system is a collection of switching elements arranged and
controlled in such a way as to set up a common path between any two distant
points.
Unit I:Introduction
Classification of Switching System
In the early stages of telecommunication systems, the process and stages of
switching, played an important to make or break connections. At the initial
stages, the switching systems were operated manually. These systems were
later automated. The following flowchart shows how the switching systems
were classified.
Unit I:Introduction
The Automatic switching systems are classified as the following −
1. Electromechanical Switching Systems − In this system, mechanical switches

are electrically operated.
2.Electronic Switching Systems − In this system, usage of electronic

components such as diodes, transistors and ICs are used for the switching
purposes.

Unit I:Introduction
1. Electromechanical Switching Systems −

The Electromechanical switching systems are a combination of mechanical and
electrical switching types. The electrical circuits and the mechanical relays are
deployed in them. The Electromechanical switching systems are further
classified into the following.
1. Step-by-step
The Step-by-step switching system is also called the Strowger switching system
after its inventor A B Strowger. The control functions in a Strowger system are
performed by circuits associated with the switching elements in the system.
Unit I:Introduction
1. Electromechanical Switching Systems −
2. Crossbar
The Crossbar switching systems have hard-wired control subsystems which use
relays and latches. These subsystems have limited capability and it is virtually
impossible to modify them to provide additional functionalities.

Unit I:Introduction
2. Electronic Switching Systems
The Electronic Switching systems are operated with the
help of a processor or a computer which control the
switching timings. The instructions are programmed and
stored on a processor or computer that control the
operations. This method of storing the programs on a
processor or computer is called the Stored Program
Control (SPC) technology. New facilities can be added to
a SPC system by changing the control program.
Unit I:Introduction
Telecommunication Network
A Telecommunication network is a group of systems that establishes
a distant call. The switching systems are part of a
telecommunication network.The switching stations provide
connection between different subscribers. Such switching systems
can be grouped to form a telecommunication network. The
switching systems are connected using lines called the Trunks. The
lines that run to the Subscriber premises are called the Subscriber
Lines.
Unit I:Introduction
Basics of a Switching System
1.Inlets and Outlets

The set of input circuits of an exchange are called Inlets and the
set of output circuits are called the Outlets.
2. Switching Matrix
The hardware used to establish connection between inlets and
outlets is called the Switching Matrix or the Switching
Network.
Unit I:Introduction
3. Types of Connections
There are four types of connections that can be established in a
telecommunication network. The connections are as follows −
1.Local call connection between two subscribers in the system.
2.Outgoing call connection between a subscriber and an
outgoing trunk.
3.Incoming call connection between an incoming trunk and a
local subscriber.
4.Transit call connection between an incoming trunk and an
outgoing trunk.
Unit I:Introduction
4. Folded Network
When the number of inlets is equal to the number of outlets for
a switching network, such a network is called the Symmetric
Network, which means N=M. A network where the outlets are
connected to the inlets, is called the Folded Network.
Unit I:Introduction
5. Blocking Network
If there are no switching paths free in the network, the call
requested will be denied, where the subscriber is said to
be blocked and the network is called the Blocking Network. In
a blocking network,
6. Traffic
The product of the calling rate and the average holding time is
defined as the Traffic Intensity.
7. Erlang
The traffic in a telecommunication network is measured by an
internationally accepted unit of traffic intensity known
as Erlang (E)
Unit I:Introduction
In a switching network, all the inlet/outlet connections may
be used for interexchange transmission .In such a
case,exchange does not support local subscribers called as
Transit Exchange. It is also called as Non-folded network.
Unit I:Introduction
Simple Telephone Communication
Communication channel can be of three types:
1.Simplex
2.Half Duplex
3.Full Duplex
Unit I:Introduction
Simplex communication: The earphone and microphone are the

transducer components of the telephone communication
system. The earphone converts the electrical signals in audio
signals and Microphone converts speech signal to electrical
signals.
Unit I:Introduction
Simplex communication:
While the sound waves impinge on the diaphragm, the
instantaneous resistance of the microphone is specified by
ri = r0 - r sinωt
where
r0 = Quiescent resistance of the microphone while there is no
speech signal.
r = Maximum variation in resistance offered through the carbon
granules, r < r0.
Unit I:Introduction
The negative sign shows that when the carbon granules are
compressed the resistance reduces and vice versa. Avoiding
impedances external to the microphone in the circuit specified
in figure without loss of generality, the instantaneous current in
the microphone is specified by
Unit I:Introduction
i = V/(r0 - r sin ωt) = I0 /(1 - m sin ωt)-1
Here I0 = V/r0 = Quiescent current in the microphone. m = r/r0 , m < 1
Through binomial theorem, the equation may be expanded as i =
I0 (1+ m sin ωt + m2 sin2 ωt + ....)
When the value of m is adequate small that is usually the case in
practice, higher- order terms can be avoided in the above equation
giving as:
i = I0 (1+ m sin ωt)
Therefore, the carbon granule microphone functions as a modulator
of the direct current I that is analogous to the carrier wave in AM
system. The quantity m is equal to the modulation index in AM.
Unit I:Introduction
Half Duplex
In half duplex mode, data can be transmitted in both directions on a
signal carrier except not at the same time. At a certain point, it is
actually a simplex channel whose transmission direction can be
switched. Walkie-talkie is a typical half duplex device. It has a “push-
to-talk” button which can be used to turn on the transmitter but turn
off the receiver.
Unit I:Introduction
Full Duplex
A full duplex communication channel is able to transmit data in both
directions on a signal carrier at the same time. It is constructed as a
pair of simplex links that allows bidirectional simultaneous
transmission. Take telephone as an example, people at both ends of a
call can speak and be heard by each other at the same time because
there are two communication paths between them.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
It provides the switching paths between the called subscribers and
the calling subscribers.
The switching systems are of the following two types −
the direct control switching system
the indirect control switching system
Direct Control Switching System

The Switching systems where the control sub systems form an
integral part of the network are called the Direct Control Switching
systems. For example, the Strowger switching system.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Indirect Control Switching System
The Switching system in which the control sub system is present

outside the switching network is called the Indirect Control Switching
system or the Common Control Switching system or the Register
Control switching system. The examples of this system include
Crossbar switching system, Electronic switching system or Stored
Program Control method of switching systems.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Basic Elements of Switching
A switching system is composed of elements that perform
1.Switching function
2.Control function and
3. Signalling functions.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Control Subsystem
This is the critical part of the switching system, which actively
establishes the switching paths, by identifying the inlet and outlet
lines and interpreting the signaling information received on these
lines.
This control subsystem, controls the making and breaking of the
connection by sensing the signal transfer on the lines. The control
sub system sends out signaling information to the subscriber and
other exchanges connected to the outgoing trunks.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Signalling
The signalling formats and requirements for the subscriber, the
trunks and the sub systems differ significantly. Accordingly, a
switching system provides for three different forms of signaling −
1.Subscriber loop signalling
2.Interexchange signalling
3.Intraexchange or register signalling
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Trunk Interface
The Trunk lines used for connections between the switching
systems, are terminated at this port. The Trunk interface is the
point where the trunk lines are connected to the system.
Subscriber Line Interface
The Subscriber lines used for connections between the subscribers
and the switching systems are terminated at this port. The
subscriber line interface is the point where the lines from the
subscribers are connected to the system.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Line Scanning Unit
The line scanning unit senses and obtains the signaling information
from the respective lines. The information obtained from these lines
are given to the control sub system to identify the inlets and outlets.
Distributor Units
The distributor units are used for distributing or sending out the
signaling information on the respective lines. The distribution of
information through the trunk lines, is done through the distribution
units.
Operator Console
The operator console permits interaction with the switching system
for maintenance and administrative purposes.
Unit I:Introduction
Switching Network
Service Circuit Interface
The service circuit interface provides interaction between circuits for
maintenance and testing purposes.
Junctures
The Junctures is a junction that provides a folded connection for the
local subscribers and the service circuits. If the called subscriber and
the calling subscriber both are local, then the folded connection
helps in making the connection to a local call, whereas the trunk
lines will not be in use.
Unit I:Introduction
Strowger Switching System
The first ever automatic telephone switching was developed by

Almon B Strowger. The Strowger Switching system is also called the
step-by-step switching system as the connections are established in
a step-by-step manner.
Automatic Switching System
Advantages
1.Language barriers will not affect the request for connection.
2.Higher degree of privacy is maintained.
3.Faster establishment and release of calls is done.
4.Number of calls made in a given period can be increased.
5.Calls can be made irrespective of the load on the system or the
time of the day.
Unit I:Introduction
Dialing
An automatic switching system requires a formal numbering plan or
addressing scheme to identify the subscribers. Numbering plan is
where a number identifies a subscriber, is more widely used than the
addressing scheme in which a subscriber is identified by the alpha
numerical strings.
These mechanism should be present in the telephone set, in order to
connect the call automatically to the required subscriber.
1. Pulse Dialing
2. Multi Frequency Dialing
Unit I:Introduction
1. Pulse Dialing
1. the digits that are used to identify the subscribers are
represented by a train of pulses. The number of pulses in a train
is equal to the digit value it represents except in the case of zero,
which is represented by 10 pulses. Successive digits in a number are
represented by a series of pulse trains.
2. These pulses have equal number of time intervals and the
number of pulses produced will be according to the number
dialed.
Unit I:Introduction
1. Pulse Dialing
3. Two successive trains are distinguished from one another by a
pause in between them, known as the Inter-digit gap. The pulses
are generated by alternately breaking and making the loop
circuit between the subscriber and the exchange. An example
pulse train is shown in the following figure.
The above figure shows the pulsating pattern. The pulse rate is
usually 10 pulses per second with a 10 percent of tolerance. The
gap between the digits, which is called the Inter-digit gap is at least
200ms.
Unit I:Introduction
1. Pulse Dialing
Disadvantages of Pulse Dialing
The pulse dialing technique is where there is making and breaking of
the subscriber loops. This might disturb and affect the performance
of speaker, microphone and bell contained in the telephone. In
addition, the dialing timings should not affect the timing of the pulse
train as this will lead to the dialing of a wrong number.
Unit I:Introduction
1.Pulse Dialing
Rotary Dial Telephone
The Rotary Dial Telephone came into existence to solve the problems
prevailing then. The microphone and the loudspeaker are combined
and placed in the receiver set. The set has a finger plate the
arrangement of which makes the dialing time appropriate. The below
figure shows how a rotary dial looks like.
Unit I:Introduction
1.Pulse Dialing
Rotary Dial Telephone
A rotary dial phone uses the following for implementing pulse
dialing. Finger plate and spring
1.Shaft, gear and Pinion wheel
2.Pawl and ratchet mechanism
3.Impulsing cam and suppressor cam or a trigger mechanism
4.Impulsing contact
5.Centrifugal governor and worm gear
6.Transmitter, Receiver and bell by-pass circuits
Unit I:Introduction
1.Pulse Dialing
Rotary Dial Telephone:Working of Rotary Dial Telephone
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BXVknodalT4
Unit I:Introduction
Crossbar Switching System
The Crossbar exchanges were developed during 1940s. They achieve

full access and non-blocking capabilities with the Crossbar switches
and common control equipment, used in the Crossbar exchanges.
The active elements called Crosspoints are placed between the input
and the output lines.
Unit I:Introduction
Features of Crossbar Switches
1.While processing a call, the common control system helps in the sharing of
resources.
2.The specific route functions of call processing are hardwired because of the Wire
logic computers.
3.The flexible system design helps in the appropriate ratio selection is allowed for a
specific switch.
4.Fewer moving parts ease the maintenance of Crossbar switching systems.
Note:The common control also provides uniform numbering of
subscribers in a multi-exchange area like big cities and routing of calls
from one exchange to another using the same intermediate exchanges.
This method helps to avoid the disadvantages associated with the
step-by-step switching method through its unique process of receiving
and storing the complete number to establish a call connection.
Unit I:Introduction
Crossbar Switching Matrix
The Crossbar arrangement is a matrix which is formed by the M X N
sets of contacts arranged as vertical and horizontal bars with contact
points where they meet. They need nearly M + N number of activators
to select one of the contacts.
Unit I:Introduction
Crossbar Switching Matrix
Non-Blocking Crossbar configuration
As all the stations are allowed to be connected with all possible
connections as long as the called party is free, this Crossbar Switching
is called the Non-Blocking Crossbar configuration, which requires N2
switching elements for N subscribers. So, the Crosspoints will be highly
greater than the subscribers. For example, 100 subscribers will require
a 10,000 Crosspoints. This means that this technique can be applied to
a group having a small number of subscribers.
Unit I:Introduction
In the matrix, as 1,2,3,4 indicate input lines and 1’,2’,3’,4’ indicate
output lines of the same subscribers, if a connection has to be
established between the 1st and the 2nd subscriber, then 1 and 2’ can
be connected or 2 and 1’ can be connected using the Crosspoints. In
the same way, when a connection has to be established between 3 and
4, then 3-4’ Crosspoint or 4-3’ Crosspoint can do the work. The
following figure will help you understand how this works.
Unit I:Introduction
Non-blocking scheme has few disadvantages such as
1.Large number of switching elements are required.

2.This is difficult to implement in practice.
3.This is neither a cost-effective process.
Unit I:Introduction
Blocking Crossbar Switches
The main aim of blocking Crossbar switches is to reduce the number of
Crosspoint switches. There are single stage and multi-stage switches.
The number of Crosspoint switches can be reduced with the help of
two different methodologies. In the first method, two subscribers
share one vertical bar. With this, the number of bars will be reduced
but the number of Crosspoint switches remain the same. The second
method is where all the subscribers share a number of vertical bars.
With this, the number of bars and Crosspoint switches are reduced.
Unit I:Introduction
Method 1
This method contains 2NK switches, where N is the number of
subscribers and K is the number of simultaneous connections.
Energize horizontal bar A

Energize free vertical bar P
De-energize horizontal bar A
Energize horizontal bar B
Energize free vertical bar P’ (associated with P)
De-energize horizontal bar B
Unit I:Introduction
This method contains NK switches, where N is the number of
subscribers and K is the number of simultaneous connections.
Energize horizontal bars A and B

Energize free vertical bar P
De-energize horizontal bars A and B
Unit I:Introduction
Transfer Line Support
Both of the discussed blocking and non-blocking type Crossbar
switches can support transfer lines. This is done by introducing
additional vertical Crossbars and Crosspoint switches.
There are two methods to introduce additional vertical Crossbars and
Crosspoint switches
1.Internal non-blocking and external blocking
2.Blocking both local and external
Unit I:Introduction
1.Internal non-blocking and external blocking
The number of Crosspoint switches in this case is N(N+L), where N is

the number of subscribers, L is the number of transfer lines.
Unit I:Introduction
2.Blocking both local and external
The number of Crosspoint switches in this case is N(2K+L), where N is

the number of subscribers, L is the number of transfer lines and K is the
number of simultaneous calls that can be supported locally.
Unit I:Introduction
Major Telecommunication Network
1.Public Switch Telephone Network(PSTN)
 The public switched telephone network, or PSTN, is the world's

collection of interconnected voice-oriented public telephone
networks. PSTN is the traditional circuit-switched telephone
network.
 PSTN comprises all the switched telephone networks around the

world that are operated by local, national or international carriers.
These networks provide the infrastructure and services for
public telecommunication.
Unit I:Introduction
How does PSTN work?
A public switched telephone network is a combination of telephone
networks used worldwide, including telephone lines, fiber optic cables,
switching centers, cellular networks, satellites and cable systems. A
PSTN lets users make landline telephone calls to one another.It is also
called as Plain Old Telephone Service.
Unit I:Introduction
How does PSTN work?
A PSTN is made up of switches at centralized points on a network that
function as nodes to enable communication between two points on
the network. A call is placed after being routed through multiple
switches. Voice signals can then travel over the connected phone lines.
The PSTN phone line is used with traditional dial-up network modems
to connect a computer to the internet. Dial-up internet connections
support up to 56 Kbps.
Unit I:Introduction
What's the difference between PSTN and ISDN?
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) was developed for the
digital transmission of data and voice over ordinary phone lines. ISDN
provides better voice quality than PSTN. The ISDN provides 128 Kbps.
One of the key features of the ISDN is it integrates both speech and
data in the same line, which is not available with ordinary telephone
wires. Users can make faster calls with ISDN than with PSTN.
Unit I:Introduction
Process for connecting call in PSTN
1.You dial a number to indicate how you would like the call to be routed.
 Each section of a phone number serves a specific purpose. The first 3 digits
are the area code (the regional switching station), the next 3 digits are the
exchange (the smallest number of circuits on the same switch), and the last 4
digits represent your recipient's unique phone ID, which is tied to a specific
address and phone line.
2. Your telephone converts the sound from your voice into electrical signals that are
transmitted to the terminal via a cable.
3. The terminal transmits these signals to the central office (CO).

Unit I:Introduction
4.Depending on where you are and where the call is going, the CO will route your
call to a CO, tandem office, toll office, or international gateway.
 CO: If you're in the same neighborhood as your recipient, your call would go to
the local central office and connect directly to the recipient.
 Tandem Office: If you're in another part of town in the same city as your
recipient, your call would go to your central office, then get routed to a tandem
office, then routed to the central office of your recipient, and then finally
routed to your recipient.
 Toll Office: If you're in another city or state from your recipient, then the
tandem office would connect to a toll office (which is responsible for national
long-distance switching), and the call would be switched from there.
 International Gateway: If you're in a different country from your recipient, your
call will be routed to the international gateway to connect your long-distance
call.
Unit I:Introduction
5.Once the call has been routed to the right destination, the electrical
signals are routed to the terminal and then sent to the right number.
6.The phone rings, and when the recipient picks up, the electrical
signals are transformed back into sound waves.
Unit I:Introduction
Generally four types of switching in PSTN
1.The local Exchange
A local exchange - which may consist of one or more exchanges -
hooks up subscribers to a PSTN line. The exchange then identifies the
number dialed so it can route the call towards the correct end
destination. This process works as follows:
 The first three digits of a phone number represent the exchange
(the local switch), while the last four digits identify the individual
subscriber within that exchange.
 This means that when you dial a number and it reaches your local
exchange, your call is immediately linked to the subscriber without
the need for any further routing.
Unit I:Introduction
2.The Tandem Office
Also known as a junction network, a tandem office serves a large
geographical area comprising several local exchanges while managing
switches between local exchanges.
3.The toll office

A toll office is connected to all the tandem offices. For instance, if you
have an office in another city you’ll find that, whenever you dial that
branch’s number, your call will be switched through a toll office.
4. The International Gateway

International gateways manage international call switching, routing
domestic calls to the appropriate countries.
Unit I:Introduction
VoIP
Voice over IP (VoIP) is also known as IP telephony, broadband
telephony, or internet telephony—but it means the same thing: your
voice transmitted through the internet. The voice signal is converted
into a digital signal and it then travels over the internet and reaches
the destination.
Unit I:Introduction
2. ISDN or Integrated Services Digital Network
It is a circuit-switched telephone network system that transmits both
data and voice over a digital line. ISDN is a network concept providing
a integration of data, voice and video. Its based on 64Kbps digital
Communication channel.
Unit I:Introduction
Telephone network requires two basic functions:
(i) Signaling –To establish and realize a call.
(ii) End-to-end transmission – To transfer the information between
the users
Unit I:Introduction
 ISDN uses these functions as separate and indeed provide
different channels for these services. This is done through proper
interface. The purpose is to provide access to various services that
are possibly supported by different networks.
 The base rate interface(BRI) provides the users with two 64Kbps
barrier(B) channels and one 16Kbps data(D) channels.
 The primary data rate interface(PRI) provides users with(23B+1D)
channels in North America and Japan and (30B+1D) channels in
Europe. Each B channel is bidirectional and provides 64Kbps end –
to-end digital connection that can carry PCM voice or data.
Unit I:Introduction
3. Wireless Local Area Network
A WLAN, or wireless LAN, is a network that allows devices to connect
and communicate wirelessly. A wireless LAN (WLAN) is a wireless
computer network that links two or more devices using wireless
communication to form a local area network (LAN) within a limited
area such as a home, school, computer laboratory, campus, or office
building.
Unit I:Introduction
WLAN Standards
WLAN devices are designed and developed as per IEEE(Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineering) standards. There are different
versions based on RF frequency, data rate and coverage requirement.
They are IEEE-802.11a, IEEE-802.11b, IEEE-802.11g, IEEE-802.11n,
IEEE-802.11ac, IEEE-802.11ad etc. developed and maintained by IEEE.
These IEEE standards define PHY and MAC layers of
11a/11b/11g/11n/11ac/11ad and upper layers are developed by
IETF(Internet Engineering Task Force). Wireless LAN works on radio
frequency of usually around 2.5GHz or 5GHz.
Unit I:Introduction
Type of Wireless LAN
 Bluetooth : originally it was a WPAN IEEE 802.15 standard that
uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances of up
to 0.05 mi (100 m).
 Wireless fidelity (Wi-Fi) : It is an IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard that
is generally implemented to provide access to the network to
home and business users, which allows data, voice and video
traffic to be included at distances of up to 300 m (0 , 18 mi)
 Global Interoperability for Microwave Access (WiMAX) : This is a
WWAN IEEE 802.16 standard that provides access to wireless
broadband services up to 30 mi (50 km) WiMAX is an alternative
to cable and DSL broadband connections.
Unit I:Introduction
Type of Wireless LAN
 Cellular broadband : consists of several national and international
business organizations that use mobile data access from a service
provider to provide cellular broadband network connectivity.
Available for the first time in 1991 with second generation cell
phones (2G), with higher speeds available in 2001 and 2006 as
part of the third (3G) and fourth (4G) generation of mobile
communications technology.
 Satellite broadband : Provides network access to remote sites
through the use of a directional satellite dish that aligns with a
specific satellite in the Earth's geostationary orbit (GEO). It is
usually more expensive and requires a clear line of sight.
Unit I:Introduction
Radio frequencies
All wireless devices operate in the radio wave band of the electromagnetic
spectrum. It is the responsibility of the Radiocommunication Sector of the
International Telecommunication Union (ITU-R) to regulate the assignment of the
radio frequency (RF) spectrum. The frequency ranges, called " bands ", are assigned
for different purposes. Some bands in the electromagnetic spectrum are largely
regulated and are used for applications such as air traffic control and emergency
response communications networks.
Unit I:Introduction
802.11 Standards
The IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard defines how RF is used in ISM
frequency bands without a license for the physical layer and MAC
sublayer of wireless links.Over the years, several implementations of
the IEEE 802.11 standard were developed. Here are these standards:
Unit I:Introduction
802.11 WLAN topologies
Wireless LANs can use different network topologies. The 802.11 standard identifies
two main modes of wireless topology:
Ad hoc mode : when two devices connect wirelessly without the help of an
infrastructure device, such as a router or a wireless AP. Examples include Bluetooth
and Wi-Fi Direct.
Infrastructure mode : when wireless clients connect via a router or wireless AP,
such as in WLANs. The APs are connected to the network infrastructure through
the cable-connected distribution system (DS), such as Ethernet.
Unit I:Introduction
4. Adhoc Network
An ad hoc network is one that is spontaneously formed when devices connect and
communicate with each other.A wireless ad hoc network or mobile ad hoc network
is a decentralized type of wireless network. The network is ad hoc because it does
not rely on a pre-existing infrastructure, such as routers in wired networks or
access points in wireless networks.
Unit I:Introduction
4. Adhoc Network
Classifications of Ad Hoc Networks
Ad hoc networks can be classified into several types depending upon the nature of
their applications. The most prominent ad hoc networks that are commonly
incorporated are illustrated in the diagram below −

Unit 1

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Telecommunication Switching and

Dr. Hemant Choubey

• Unit 1 Introduction: Evolution of Telecommunications, Simple

• Unit 4 Telephone Networks: Subscriber Loop Systems, Switching Hierarchy

• Unit 5 Data networks: Data transmission in PSTNs, Modems, ISO-OSI/TCP-IP

In general if n entity is present then n(n-1)/2 link

1. Electromechanical Switching Systems − In this system, mechanical switches

2.Electronic Switching Systems − In this system, usage of electronic

1. Electromechanical Switching Systems −

1.Inlets and Outlets

Communication channel can be of three types:

Simplex communication: The earphone and microphone are the

Direct Control Switching System

The Switching system in which the control sub system is present

The first ever automatic telephone switching was developed by

The Crossbar exchanges were developed during 1940s. They achieve

1.Large number of switching elements are required.

Energize horizontal bar A

Energize horizontal bars A and B

The number of Crosspoint switches in this case is N(N+L), where N is

The number of Crosspoint switches in this case is N(2K+L), where N is

 The public switched telephone network, or PSTN, is the world's

 PSTN comprises all the switched telephone networks around the

3. The terminal transmits these signals to the central office (CO).

3.The toll office

4. The International Gateway

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