Hi!

Language and
interest:
Slang - Style ¡Hola!
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C
 OUTLINE
I. Definition of slang
II. Types of slang
III. Characteristics of slang
IV. Functions and uses of slang
V. Slang formation
VI. Style
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C
 I. Definition of slang
• Slang can be considered to be
“very informal words and • What follows is an overview of the
expressions that are more definitions of slang from various
common in spoken language, perspectives, including: 
especially used by a group of
a, The sociological approach 
people, for example children,
criminals, soldiers... b, The stylistic approach
“Catcher in the Rye” Salinger
c, The linguistic approach
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

• For example, “grass” is slang for

marijuana used by drug addicts. d, The lexicographic description
 •  Within the sociological approach, slang is ascribed the two opposite
purposes of keeping insiders together and outsiders out:
a. The + On the one hand, It establishes or reinforces social identity or
cohesiveness within a group or with a trend or fashion in society at
sociological
large.
approach  + On the other hand, slang is said to serve anti-social purposes such as
marking social differences, opposing authority, and hiding secret
information or improper behavior from them.

● In particular,  slang is viewed as an in-group vocabulary that certain subclasses in society cultivate to keep
the content of their conversations private, or which such specific subgroups adopt to keep the other
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

generation at a distance.
● The two conflicting – social and anti-social tendencies of slang are evident in the effects it may produce.
  - Within the stylistic approach, slang is juxtaposed to formal language: particularly,

b. The it is below standard discourse and the neutral stylistic level.

- On the other hand, slang is also juxtaposed to other non-standard varieties: it is
stylistic neither dialect nor register, nor can it be restricted to the concepts of: cant, argot
and jargon.
approach  + cant: the specialized and usually secret language of thieves, professional beggars,
and other groups operating on the springes of society.

Ex: the word Drum, meaning ‘home, house’ (U.K underworld slang).
+ argot (a secret language used by various groups, e.g. schoolmates, outlaws, colleagues… to prevent the outsiders from
understanding the conversation).
       Ex: Argot of schoolmates: BFF – Best Friend Forever.
+ jargon (the specialized vocabulary and phraseology of a set of people sharing a trade or profession).
      Ex of business jargon: bang for the buck - a term that means to get the most for your money.
A Buck A Book
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

Slang can be rather viewed as a short-lived ephemeral vocabulary that is

expecting either to pass into disuse or to have a more standard status.
 c. The
linguistic
approach  
It is regarded as the use of ordinary words in extraordinary senses
or of extraordinary words in ordinary senses.
Within the linguistic approach, slang is distinguished from the
standard language in both its morphology and its semantics:
+ In morphology, it is characterized by clear insubordination as
regards the standard word-formation rules.
+ as in semantics, it not only renames everyday objects, but also
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

enriches, qualifies and complexifies them. -Dough= money

 d. The
lexicographic
definition   this
- In dictionaries, there is no unique clear-cut definition of slang because
concept has acquired different senses in different periods of time.
- Originally, the term was used to refer to the language of criminals,
thieves and vagabonds.
- But soon after the mid-eighteenth century, the term “slang” gradually
broadened to include the language of other sub-groups, not necessarily of
lower culture, but rather connected by their profession. In this sense, the
term became more specialized and nearly synonymous with jargon.
- Lastly, in the early years of the nineteen century, slang acquired the more
general sense of colloquial of vocabulary which is outside of conventional
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

or standard usage, and which

belongs rather to familiar conversation
than to written language.
 II. Styles of slang
1. Hotten (1860), Mattiello (2008) and Migut (2010):

- Slang tends to originate in subcultures ( youth culture) within a society.

Slang may be classified as a social variety characterizing a group (e.g.
music slang, military slang, navy slang, drug slang, thieves’ slang, teenage
slang, college slang, etc.), as a regional variety distinguishing an area (e.g.
British slang, American slang, Anglo-Irish slang) or a district (Cockney
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

slang).
 Hotten : 14 areas Migut : 10 types

- War slang
- Theatrical Slang
- Fashionable Slang - Criminal slang
- Civic Slang
- Parliamentary Slang - Urban slang
- Slang terms for Money
- Military and Dandy Slang - Internet slang
- Shopkeepers’ Slang
- University Slang - Prison slang
- Workmen’s Slang
- Religious Slang - Political slang
- Slang Apologies for
- Legal Slang or Slang - Afro-American slang
Oaths
amongst the Lawyers - Vice slang
- Slang terms for
- Literary Slang - SMS slang
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

Drunkenness
- Sex slang
 2. Specific and general slang
Specific slang is language that speakers use to show their
belonging to a group and establish solidarity or intimacy with the
other group members.
- It is often used by speakers to create their own identity,
including such aspects as social status and geographical
belonging, or even age, education, occupation, lifestyle and
special interests.
- It is also used by people sharing the same occupation to increase
efficiency in communication; or by those sharing the same living
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C
General slang, on the other hand, is language that
speakers deliberately use to break with the standard
language and to change the level of discourse in the
direction of informality.
- It signals the speaker’s intention to refuse
conventions and their need to be fresh and startling in
their expression, to ease social exchanges and induce
friendliness, to reduce excessive seriousness and avoid
clichés, in brief, to enrich the language.
- General slang words have a wider circulation as they
are neither group-nor subject-restricted and are much

conditions to hide secret information from people in authority. more likely to get established as informal or colloquial
English.
- It is used by people sharing an attitude or lifestyle to reinforce
their group cohesiveness.
 3. Rhyming slang

● Rhyming slang is a form of slang word construction in the English language that uses rhyme.
● It is often humorous and especially prevalent in the UK, Ireland and Australia
● The construction of rhyming slang involved replacing a common word with a phrase of two or
more words the last of which rhymes with the original word; the in almost all cases, omitting, from
the end of the phrase, the secondary rhyming word, making the origin and the meaning of the
phrase elusive to listeners not in the know.
● EX: - The rhyming slang which are familiar to most British people are apples and pears (stairs),
trouble and strife (wife), plates and meat (feet) and dicky and dirt (shirt).
- They are going to take a butcher’s (have a look at something). The original expression was to
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

take a butcher’s hook which rhymes with look.

 III. Characteristics of slang
1. The linguistic properties of slang
a. Phonology:
At the phonological level, slang plays with sounds and manipulates word pronunciation through
onomatopoeia, echoism, jocular mispronunciation of words, assimilation, Cockney rhyming
slang.
b. Morphology:
At the morphology level, it is claimed that “the same ordinary word-building processes that give
rise to the general vocabulary also shape slang expressions” 
c. Grammar: Not much attention has been devoted so far to the grammar of slang.
   E.G:  PRESENT FOR PAST: “ I'm at the mall, and I see this cool shirt, and I buy it.” 
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

  Someone saying this would probably mean "I WAS at the mall, and I SAW this cool shirt, and I
BOUGHT it"--in which case present-tense verbs are being used with past-tense meaning. This is
another narration device, of long standing but still considered slang.
 1. The linguistic properties of slang

d. Semantics:
- The semantics of slang has attracted the attention of almost all pertinent studies.
- In particular, Eble [1996, as cited in Mattiello, 2008) underline the tendency of
slang to name things indirectly or figuratively, especially through metaphor, e.g. bird
(an aeroplane), metonymy, e.g.tinie/-y (a can of beer), synecdoche, e.g. wheels “ a
car”)...Eble [1996, as cited in Mattiello, 2008) also argues that slang items often
diverse from standard usage in predictable ways, especially by such opposite
semantic processes as generalization, specialization, amelioration and pejoration.
However, it is not always possible to identify a logical connection between a word’s
standard meaning and those added by slang.
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

 E.g: nyemok which means smoking, walking walking which means to take a walk.
 2. The sociological properties of slang 
Table 2.30. The Sociological properties of

a.  The sociological properties of slang: Speaker-oriented Hearer-oriented

- Slang is associated with many Group-restriction Playfulness
sociological properties, which derive Subject-restriction Humour
Secrecy Freshness
from both its varied nature and its
Privacy Novelty
multifunctionality. Informality Desire to impress
- The table shows that the sociological Debasement Faddishness
properties of slang may be classified Vulgarity Colour
Obscenity Musicality
in relation to either the speaker or the Time-restriction Impertinence
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

hearer. Ephemerality       Aggressiveness

Localism
 The speaker-oriented properties of slang
characterize the speaker
• as member of a particular group (group-
restriction, individualities), often as exclusive
one (secrecy, privacy, culture-restriction,
prestige);
• as someone with a precise occupation / activity
(subject-restriction, technicality);
• as someone having a low cultural status
(informality, debasement), or using low / bad
language (vulgarality, obscenity);
• as an individual of a certain age or generation
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C
(time-restriction, epherality) or coming from a
specific regional area (localism).
The hearer-oriented properties are rather meant
to produce some effect upon the hearer, viz:
● to amuse the hearer or to make him laugh
(playfulness, humour);
● to release him from the monotony of neutral style
(freshness, novelty, unconventionality);
● to impress the hearer (desire to impress), esp.
with bizarre expressions (fadiness), or to attract
his attention with colourful words (colour) and
their sounds(musicality);
● to mock, offend or challenge the hearer
(impertinence, offensiveness, aggressiveness).
 IV. Functions and uses of slang
● According to Eric Partridge (1933), there are at least fifteen reasons why people often use slang:
A-for the fun of it, B-as an exercise in wit or ingenuity, C-to be different, D-to be picturesque, E-
to be arresting, F-to escape from clichés, G-to enrich the language, ect.
● Slang is a social dialect that is not officially recognized, but understood and used according to
community convention. Therefore, not with anyone, always, we can use slang words arbitrarily.
● Only when communicating intimately with friends, who are the same age or younger, should we
use slang. Avoid communicating with elders, superiors, etc. in special, difficult to understand
languages.
● Sometimes, using slang words to enrich the expression and meaning is also a good idea. In
addition, this is also a way to create humor and wit, making the conversation atmosphere always
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

fun and intimate.

 V. Slang formation

● Slang originates from a conflict of values at the surface or at the core. When a certain individual
uses language in a new way to express opposition, ridicule or contempt for contemporary norms, and
he does this with an element of humor, the individual is creating out slang.
● Many of them are obtained via extra-grammatical morphological operations, i.e. word-formation
mechanisms which violate various universal properties of grammatical morphology.
● A third type of slang formation appears to lie in-between, since it exhibits some regularity, but extra-
grammaticality in the base forms, or vice versa, i.e. it shows the regularity of the base, but extra-
grammaticality in the mechanism of formation.
● Nowadays, with the emergence and widespread use of social networks, slang is produced at a high
frequency and becomes more "viral" than ever.
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C
 VI. Style
1. What is style?
Stylistics
-Style is a term which is used with several different meanings. The term style can refer to a-
variation in a person’s speech or writing and b- a particular person’s use of speech or writing at
all times or to a way of speaking or writing at a particular period of time( Richards, Platt and
Weber ).
-We postulate that the essential aspect of the non-linguistic component (that is the attitude) is
the gradiant between stiff, formal, cold, impersonal on the one hand and relaxed, informal,
warm, friendly, neutral stiff, formal, cold, impersonal (the degree of formality that
characterizes a speaker’s language as influenced by the social contexts).
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C
 The Five Clock distinguishes 5 styles:

a. Frozen( stiff) : the most careful and elegant variety, reserved for
very important or symbolic moments.
b. Formal: our generally serious levels of language use.
c. Consultative: the plain, everyday style
d. Casual: our normal, relaxed style, appropriate to conversations
with friends.
e. Intimate: the most grammatically and phonologically reduced
style, used exclusively with our closest friends and family.
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

Elizabeth, Lisa
Robert, Bobby, Bob
 a. The frozen style

● The frozen style is called that because many of its linguistic units are fixed and unalterable, and
native speakers tolerate little or no variation in it. These occasions demand frozen language.
● Much of frozen style may be exactly the same as formal in its carefully planned and often elaborate
structure. When spoken it is often intoned or elongated rather than carefully pronounced. However,
here and there in the frozen style, certain fixed expressions are required. A judge must say to a
returning jury: ”Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, have you reached a verdict?” or “Ladies and
gentlemen, have you concluded your deliberations?”
● Ex.1.Judge: Ladies and gentlemen of the jury, have you reached a verdict.
● Ex.2.Minister: our father, who art in heaven...... .
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

● Thy will= your will

 b. The formal style 

● The formal style is for dressed up, important occasions, but we do not find lasting or symbolic value
in these occasions. The vocabulary and syntax are varied and complicated, but there are no
formulaic utterances that could be characterized as “flowery,” “elaborated,’ or “ordinate.” Variation,
rather than
formulaic repetition, is a characteristic of formal style.
Ex.1: Welcome to today’s program: Varieties of American English, Stylistic Differences. Your hosts
are two well-known sociolinguists, Dr. Roger Shuy of Georgetown university and the Center for
Applied Linguistics Dr. Dennis and Preston from the State University of New York, College at
Fredonia. 
● Ex.2: Chairperson: Ladies and gentlemen, the company cannot ascertain ( make sure) why this has
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

happened. We’re unable to explain the drop in prices, but we do not feel that the trend will continue.
 c. The consultative style
● The consultative style is appropriate to a wide range of speaking and writing situations. They
are routine and without symbolic significance. Both the formal and frozen styles are likely to
occur in monologues, but the consultative is for conversation. Consultative style is
characterized by false starts, backtracking, interruption, ellipsis, and so on.
● Example 1: At the Filling Station
- Filling Station Attendant: Hi. Run out of gas.
- Driver: Sure did. Must not have been paying attention
- Attendant: Regular or unleaded?
- Driver: Regular, please.
● Example 2: The “Welcome Wagon”
- Man: Hi, Welcome Wagon Woman: Hello. Are you Mr. Andrews? Man: Yes, I am.
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

- Woman: I’m from the local Welcome Wagon Service and I’ve come to welcome you to our
community.
 d. The casual style
● The casual style is for fun, relaxation, and use with close friends and relatives. It is a leisure speech. When
casual is used in places which demand the consultative, it seems that the speaker is being disrespectful to the
person addressed or not properly serious about the topic of discussion.
● On the other hand, when the casual is expected and one uses the consultative or even formal, the use of the
inappropriate style seems to suggest that the friendship is strained or that the speaker is angry or upset with the
listener.
● Example of the casual style:
- Joe: Hey, Bill! Let’s cut out of here.
- Bill: Can’t. Got to clean up.
- Joe: I’m taking off, then.
- Bill: Right. See you down at Tony’s.
- Joe: About six?
- Bill:’Kay ( okay)
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

- Joe: Later, sucker.

- Bill: Yeah, you lucky dog.
 e. The intimate style
● The intimate style is our closest, friendliest, most trusting variety. Families, lovers, and the closest of
friends use it, though not in all situations. Linguistically, intimate language, filled as it is with deletion,
ellipsis, rapid and slurred pronunciation, non-verbal communication, and private code characteristics, is often
unintelligible outside the smallest social units.
● An example of the intimate style:
- Wife: That you?
- Husband: Uh-huh.
- Wife: How’d it go?
- Husband: Couldn’t get him to look at it until next week. Covered up. 
- Wife: Well, it's going so bad we may have to get somebody else to do it. 
- Husband: Hmmmmmm. Check with Fred?
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

- Wife: Mmm-hmm
- Husband: Try next door?
 Functional styles
- A functional style of language is a system of interrelated language means which serves a definite
aim in communication.
-Language can be used in communication to serve five functions: + phatic,
+ aesthetic ( poems, novels)
+ cognitive
+ directive
+ informative
- Based on the main function each text / discourse unit serves, we can have different functional
styles. Two main functions styles:
+ informal style: serving phatic function in informal situations.
+ formal style: used in formal situations.
- In the English literary standard we distinguish the following major functional styles
OM
SLIDESMANIA.C

+ The language of belles-lettres ( literature)

+ The language of publicistic literature ( administration)
+ The language of newspapers