Lecture - QueryLanguages

CET341 Database Query Languages
Database Query Languages

Contents
• Introduction to Querying
– ANSI-SPARC architecture (again!)
– Data Access Methods
– Query Languages
• Relational Query Languages
– Relational Algebra
Introduction to Query Languages

Host language Host language Host language
+Data sublanguage +Data sublanguage +Data sublanguage
External External External

View 1 View 2 View n
Conceptual DBMS
Level
Internal
Level
Data Access Methods
• Query language is the Data Sublanguage part of

the ANSI SPARC architecture
• As well as SQL, there are many other ways of
querying a database
– SQL can be embedded in a host language, e.g. JDBC,
C#, PHP, ODBC, …
– Query By Example (as used in Access)
– Query By Forms (e.g. Oracle Forms, Oracle APEX)
Query Languages
• SQL is by far the most well know query language,

but there are others…
– Relational Algebra – a standard by which other
relational query languages are compared
– Relational Calculus – an equivalent to the algebra
– QUEL – a structured form of the relational calculus
– SQL – a ‘mix’ of algebra/calculus which has become the
‘de-facto’ standard for relational and the standard for
object-relational databases
– OQL – a standard for object-oriented databases
Relational Completeness
• A standard by which relational query languages

are measured
– A language is said to be relationally complete if it can
implement (at least) all operations of the relational
algebra
• Algebra (obviously is relationally complete)
• Calculus, SQL and QUEL are all also relationally complete
– Not the same as computational completeness i.e. a
language that can express any computable function, e.g.
Java, C#, etc.
Relational Algebra
• Relational algebra defines a set of
operators that may work on relations.
• Relations are just sets of data. As such,
relational algebra deals with set theory.
• The operators in relational algebra are very
similar to traditional algebra except that
they apply to sets.
Relational Algebra
• Relational algebra provides several main
operators:
– Union
– Difference
– Intersection
– Product
– Projection
– Selection (Restriction)
– Join (many variations)
Union Operator
• The union operator adds

tuples from one relation to
another relation to form a A
third relation
• A union operation will
result in a combined
relation B
• The Union of relations A
and B is denoted as A  B A UNION B
or A[p_code]  B[p_code] A B
Union Example
– returns set of all rows from two tables. The tables have
to have the same characteristics e.g.
A B
F_NAME UNION F_NAME Yields F_NAME
Georgina Jane Georgina
Jane William Jane
Elaine Elaine
Peter Peter
William
Union Compatible
• Relations are union compatible if they:
1. Share the same number of attributes (columns)
2. Each attribute comes from the same domain
• Relations in the union operator must be union
compatible
– As must DIFFERENCE and INTERSECT
• Not enforced in SQL
– Also UNION and INTERSECT are associative
– i.e. A UNION B == B UNION A
– but DIFFERENCE is not associative
Union Compatible Examples
• Decide which of these • A Id Name
relations are union 1 Fred

3 Bill
compatible with
relation X Id Name Age
• B
• X Id Name
3 Bill 25
5 Betty 18
1 Fred
2 Sally • C Id Name
AB03 Bill
EF05 Betty
Union Compatible Example
• Result of A UNION X
Id Name
1 Fred
2 Sally
3 Bill
– Remember, order of tuples is unimportant

Difference Operator
• The difference operator produces
a third relation that contains the A
tuples that appear in the first
relation, but not the second
• This is similar to a subtraction
• This is denoted A – B or B
A[f_name] - B[f_name]
A-B
Difference Example
– returns set of all rows in one table (A) that are not found
in the other (B)
A B
F_NAME DIFFERENCE F_NAME Yields F_NAME

Georgina Jane Georgina
Jane Sue Elaine
Elaine Sarah Peter
Peter
Sue
Difference Example 2
• The order is important for the difference operator:

B A
F_NAME DIFFERENCE F_NAME Yields F_NAME
Jane Georgina Sarah
Sue Jane
Sarah Elaine
Peter
Sue
Intersection Operator
• An intersection operation will

produce a third relation that A
contains the tuples (rows) that
are common to the relations
involved.
• This is similar to the logical B
operator ‘AND’
• Example
(A  B) A INTERSECT B
Intersection Example
• Returns set of all rows belonging to A and B relations, i.e.
rows that appear in BOTH tables
A B
F_NAME INTERSECT F_NAME Yields F_NAME
Georgina Jane Jane
Jane William Sue
Elaine Sue
Peter Dennis
Sue
Multi-column Examples
• Rules are the same when tables have multiple

attributes
• E.g. A UNION B =
Id Name Id Name Id Name
1 Fred 1 Fred 1 Fred
1 Barney 2 Joan 1 Barney
2 Sally 3 Bill 2 Sally
2 Joan
3 Bill

attributes
• E.g. A DIFFERENCE B =
1 Fred 1 Fred 1 Barney
1 Barney 2 Joan 2 Sally
2 Sally 3 Bill

attributes
• E.g. A INTERSECT B =
1 Fred 1 Fred 1 Fred
1 Barney 2 Joan
2 Sally 3 Bill
Product Operation
• A product operator is a concatenation of

every tuple in one relation with every tuple
in a second relation (Cartesian Product)
• The resulting relation will have x times y
tuples, where…
x = the number of tuples in the first relation
and
y = the number of tuples in the second relation
• This is similar to multiplication A  B
Product Example
A B A PRODUCT B
P_CODE STORE SHELF P_CODE STORE SHELF
AA 23 J AA 23 J
BB 24 K AA 24 K
25 L AA 25 L
BB 23 J
BB 24 K
BB 25 L
Project Operator
• A projection operation
produces a second relation
that is a subset of the first.
• The subset is in terms of
A
columns, not tuples
• The resulting relation will
contain a limited number of
columns. However, every
tuple will be listed. PROJECT x,y, z (A)
A[f_name, s_name] x,y,z (A)
Project Example
– returns selected attributes for all rows in relation A
A A[f_name,s_name]
F_NAME S_NAME PHONE_NO F_NAME S_NAME

Georgina Brown 019167854 Georgina Brown
Jane Jones 010368797 Jane Jones
Elaine Smith 098459856 Elaine Smith
Peter Newman 089759897 Peter Newman
Sue Walker 056784567 Sue Walker
Jane Jones 018763214
Notice we have one less
tuple in the result, why?
Select (Restrict) Operator

• The selection operator (sometimes called
restrict) is similar to the projection operator.
It produces a second relation that is a subset
of the first. Uses a condition
• However, the selection operator produces a
subset of tuples (rows) , not attributes A
(columns).
• The resulting relation contains all columns,
but only contains a portion of the tuples.
A WHERE store > 24
store > 24 (A)
Select (Restrict) Example

• Return rows from a relation where qualifier is true.
A A where store > 24

STORE SHELF STORE SHELF
23 J 25 L
24 K
25 L
Join Operator
• The join operator is a combination of the

product, selection, and projection operators.
• There are several variations of the join
operator…
– Natural join
– Theta join
– Equi-join
Join Operator (Cont.)

A join works along these lines:
(a) Form the product of A and B
(b) Perform a selection to eliminate some tuples
Criteria for the selection are specified as part of
the join
(c) Then remove some attributes through projection
(optional)
A JOIN (StaffNo = StaffId) B
A ⋈StaffNo = StaffId B or A*B (if attribute names match)
Join Example (Data version 1)

Mod Name Level Crscode StaffNo
Advanced DB 3 COM348 01
A
DB Systems 2 COM220 01
SAD 2 COM221 05
OOD 3 COM379 08
StaffNo Staff Position

Name
01 Stirk S PL
B 05 Lejk M R
08 Erwin H SL
Join Example (Natural Join)
Mod Name Level Crs Staff Staff Position

code No Name
Advanced 3 COM348 01 Stirk S SL
DB
DB 2 COM220 01 Stirk S. SL
Systems
SAD 2 COM221 05 Lejk M R
OOD 3 COM379 08 Erwin H SL

Join Example (Data version 2)

Mod Name Level Crscode StaffNo
Advanced DB 3 COM348 01
A
DB Systems 2 COM220 01
SAD 2 COM221 05
OOD 3 COM379 08
StaffId Staff Position

Name
01 Stirk S PL
B 05 Lejk M R
08 Erwin H SL
Notice that our attribute in relation
B is now called StaffId
CET341 Database Query Languages Notice that we now have two attributes in the result
Join Example (Equi-join)
Mod Name Level Crs Staff Staff Staff Position

code No Id Name
Adv. DB 3 COM348 01 01 Stirk S PL
DB Systems 2 COM220 01 01 Stirk S PL
SAD 2 COM221 05 05 Lejk M R
OOD 3 COM379 08 08 Erwin H SL

Further Reading
• Date, chapter 6
• Connolly & Begg chapter 5 (5th, 6th ed.)
• For brief introductory overviews read:
Ritchie, C., Relational Database Principles, Continuum,
1998 (reprinted 2000), pp 33-37
Rolland, F.D., The Essence of Databases, Prentice
Hall, 1998, pp48-63

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CET341 Database Query Languages

Database Query Languages

Introduction to Query Languages

External External External

Data Access Methods

• Query language is the Data Sublanguage part of

• SQL is by far the most well know query language,

• A standard by which relational query languages

• The union operator adds

Union Compatible Examples

• Decide which of these • A Id Name

relations are union 1 Fred

Union Compatible Example

– Remember, order of tuples is unimportant

F_NAME DIFFERENCE F_NAME Yields F_NAME

• The order is important for the difference operator:

• An intersection operation will

• Rules are the same when tables have multiple

• Rules are the same when tables have multiple

• Rules are the same when tables have multiple

• A product operator is a concatenation of

F_NAME S_NAME PHONE_NO F_NAME S_NAME

Select (Restrict) Operator

Select (Restrict) Example

A A where store > 24

• The join operator is a combination of the

Join Operator (Cont.)

Join Example (Data version 1)

StaffNo Staff Position

Join Example (Natural Join)

Mod Name Level Crs Staff Staff Position

OOD 3 COM379 08 Erwin H SL

Join Example (Data version 2)

StaffId Staff Position

Join Example (Equi-join)

Mod Name Level Crs Staff Staff Staff Position

DB Systems 2 COM220 01 01 Stirk S PL

SAD 2 COM221 05 05 Lejk M R

OOD 3 COM379 08 08 Erwin H SL

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