THERMAL RADIATION

 Thermal radiation or radiation heat transfer is a distinct separate mechanism from conduction
and convection for transfer of heat energy.
 It refers to the heat energy emitted by the bodies because of their temperatures.
 All bodies at a temperature above absolute zero temperature emit energy by a process of
electromagnetic radiation.
 The intensity of such radiation depends upon the temperature and nature of the surface.
 The energy transfer by radiation does not require any medium between hot and cold surfaces.
 The energy transfer by radiation is the fastest (at the speed of light) and it does not suffer any
attenuation even in the vacuum.
 Radiation heat transfer can also occur between two bodies separated by a medium that is colder
than the both bodies.
 For an example, the energy emitted by sun reaches the earth surface after travelling through
space and extremely cold air layers at high altitudes.
THEORIES OF RADIATION
 The actual mechanism of radiation propagation is not fully understood, but two theories;
Maxwell theory and Max Planck’s theory are in use. Both concepts are used in study of
thermal radiation.
MAXWELL’S THEORY
 According to Maxwell electromagnetic theory, the energy is transferred from a hot body to
cold body in the form of electromagnetic waves.
 The electromagnetic waves are characterised by their frequency ν and wavelength λ, in a
medium as: c

v
 where c is the speed of light in the medium.

 In vacuum, c = c0 = 2.998 × 108 m/s.

 This concept is useful in studies for the prediction of the radiation properties of the surfaces
and materials
MAX PLANCK’S THEORY
 According to Max Planck’s concept, the propagation of thermal radiation takes place in form
of discrete quanta called photons, each quantum having an energy of
hc
E  hv 


where h is Planck’s constant = 6.6256 × 10–34 J-s, ν is frequency of photons, and c is a constant.
 Energy of the photons is inversely proportional to its wavelength.
 This theory is used to predict the magnitude of emitted energy by a body at a given
temperature under ideal conditions.
SPECTRUM OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
 At temperature associated with most engineering applications, the bulk of thermal energy
emitted by a body lies in wavelength between λ ≈ 0.1 and λ ≈ 100 μm.
 For this reason, this portion of the spectrum is generally referred as thermal radiation.

 The sun emits thermal radiation at an effective surface temperature of 5760 K and bulk of this
energy lies between λ = 0.1 to λ = 3 μm, therefore, this spectrum is referred as the solar
radiation.
 The radiation energy emitted by the sun is in wavelength between λ = 0.4 to λ = 0.76 μm, is
visible to human eye, therefore, this spectrum is referred as the visible radiation (light)..
 The radiation emitted by bodies at atmospheric temperature falls into infrared region, (0.76 ≤ λ
≤ 100 μm).
 The bodies emit radiation in the visible range usually at temperature above 800 K.
 The ultraviolet radiation is low wavelength (0.1 ≤ λ ≤ 0.4 μm) radiation in the thermal
radiation range.
 These rays are harmful, since they can kill micro-organisms and cause serious damage to
human, and other living beings.

BLACK BODY RADIATION

 A black body is defined as a body which is a perfect emitter and absorber of radiation. It has an
ideal surface with the following properties :
1. A black body absorbs all incident radiation from all directions at all wavelengths.
2. At a specified temperature and wavelength, nobody can emit energy more than a black body.
3. Although the radiation emitted by a blackbody depends upon wavelength and temperature, but
it is independent of direction.

4. A black body neither reflects nor transmits any amount of incident radiation.

SPECTRAL AND TOTAL EMISSIVE POWER

 All surfaces at a temperature above absolute zero temperature emit energy in all directions
over a wide range of wavelength.
 At a given temperature, the total amount of heat energy emitted by a surface in all direction
over entire wavelength per unit area, per unit time is called the emissive power.
 The emissive power depends on characteristics and temperature of the surface.

 It is designated as E and measured in W/m2, and E  f ( T )

where ε = emissivity, a surface characteristics,

λ = wavelength of radiation, μm,

T = absolute temperature of the surface, K.
 Spectral or monochromatic emissive power.
 The amount of radiation energy emitted from a surface at a given temperature also varies with
the wavelength.
 The spectral or monochromatic emissive power is defined as amount of radiation energy
emitted by a surface at an absolute temperature T, per unit time, per unit surface area and per
unit wavelength dλ about the wavelength λ. It is designated as Eλ and measured in W/m2. μm.
 The radiation is emitted over the wavelength ranges from λ = 0 to λ = ∞. The emissive power
of surface over the wavelength ranges from λ to λ + d λ is given by dE = Eλdλ

where, dE = emissive power in given wave band between λ to λ + dλ, (W/m2)

Eλ = monochromatic emissive power,(W/m2.μm).

 The total emissive power of a surface overentire spectrum of wavelength is

E   E d

0
SURFACE ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION
 The irradiation is the total radiation energy incident per unit area per unit time over entire
wave length from all directions. It is denoted by G and measured in W/m2.
 For most of the surfaces, when the radiation incidents on a body, part of it is absorbed, part of
it is reflected and remaining part is transmitted as shown in figure
 Absorptivity : A blackbody absorbs all incident radiation, hence its absorptivity is considered
unity. But real surfaces do not absorb all energy incident on it.
 The total or average or hemispherical absorptivity α is defined as fraction of radiation energy
incident on the surface from all directions, over entire wavelength spectrum, that is absorbed
by the surface. Mathematically
G
 a
G
where, Gα = energy absorbed by the surface, W/m2, and
G = irradiation, W/m2.
 Reflectivity : When radiation is incident on a non black surface, a fraction is always reflected
by the surface.
 The reflectivity of a surface is defined as the fraction of radiation energy incident on a surface
from all directions over entire wavelengths, that is reflected. It is designated as ρ and is
expressed as : G


G
where Gρ is energy reflected by the surface.
 If the surface is perfectly smooth and the angle θ of incident and reflected rays is equal, then
the reflection is called the specular (or mirror like) reflection as shown in figure.
 If the surface has some roughness, the incident radiation is scattered in all directions after
reflection, such reflection is called the diffuse reflection as shown in figure.
 The reflection from real surfaces is neither specular nor diffuse but combination of diffuse and
specular behaviour as shown in figure.
 Transmissivity : When radiation is incident on a semi-transparent surface, a part is reflected, a
part is absorbed and remaining is transmitted. Hence the transmissivity, τ is the fraction of
incident energy transmitted through the surface. Mathematically
G
 
G

where Gτ is energy transmitted by the surface.

 With above considerations, for a surface, the sum of absorbed, reflected and transmitted
radiation energy is equal to the radiation energy incident on the surface;

Gα + Gρ + Gτ = G

Dividing each term in above relation by G, we get

α+ρ+τ=1
 Monochromatic irradiation: The irradiation G defined above is total hemispherical property.

 Thus α, ρ, and τ are average properties of a surface for all directions and all wavelengths.
However, for a specific wavelength or direction, the irradiation is referred as monochromatic
irradiation.
 It is also called spectral irradiation and is defined as the radiant heat flux incident on a surface
per unit wavelength about a wavelength λ from all directions.

 It is denoted by Gλ and measured in W/m2.μm. Mathematically it is expressed as :

dG
G 
 d
 Total hemispherical irradiation may be evaluated

G   G d

0
 The spectral absorptivity, reflectivity and transmissivity of a surface are defined in a similar
manner as:

1. Spectral absorptivity αλ is the fraction of monochromatic irradiation absorbed.

2. Spectral reflectivity ρλ is the fraction of monochromatic irradiation reflected.

3. Spectral transmissivity τλ is the fraction of monochromatic energy transmitted.

G G G
 , ,   ,
     
 G  G  G
  

where Gλ,α, Gλ,ρ and Gλ,τ are the absorbed, reflected and transmitted portion of spectral irradiation Gλ.
Similar to average properties, the sum of spectral properties is always equal to unity as :

αλ + ρ λ + τ λ = 1
Opaque body: For an opaque surface, there is no transmission thus the reflectivity and
absorptivity are :
α+ρ=1

and α λ + ρλ = 1

White body: A body is called white body which reflects almost all radiation incident upon it and
does not absorb or transmit any part of it. For white body :
α = 0 ; τ = 0 thus ρ ≡ 1
Black body: A black body neither reflects nor transmits any part of the incident radiation but it

absorbs all of it, i.e.,

ρ = 0 ; τ = 0 and α = 1
BLACK BODY RADIATION LAWS
Black body Spectral Emissive Power
 The spectral or monochromatic emissive power for a black surface is highest at every
wavelength at any given temperature and it is given by Max Planck’s distribution law, based on
quantum theory, as :

C
E (T )  1
b

 5 exp C /  T   1
 2  
where C1 and C2 are constant ;

C1 = 2πhc02 = 3.742 × 108 W.μm4/m2, and C2 = hc0/kB = 1.438 × 104 μm.K ; kB = 1.3805 × 10–23,
Boltzmann constant.; T = absolute temperature, K ; λ = wavelength, μm ;

Ebλ(T) = spectral black body emissive power at absolute temperature T, W/m2.μm.

WIEN’S DISPLACEMENT LAW

 The relationship between the wavelength λ max and absolute temperature T at which E bλ reaches a

maximum value is given by the Wien’s displacement law.

STEFAN BOLTZMANN LAW

E  T 4    5.672  108W / m2 K 4
b
The constant σ is called the Stefan Boltzmann constant.

EMISSIVITY

 The radiation emitted by a real surface at temperature T is always less than that of blackbody.
Therefore, the blackbody emission is considered as reference.

 The emissivity is defined as the ratio of the radiation energy emitted by a surface to that emitted by
a black body at the same temperature.
 It is a dimensionless quantity, a property of a radiating surface to measure of how closely a
surface approximates a black surface for which ε = 1.
 It is designated as ε and varies between 0 and 1.
 The emissivity of a real surfaces is not constant. It varies with temperature of the surface, as
well as wavelength and direction of the emission.
 Therefore, different emissivities may be defined for a surface, depending upon the effect
considered.

HEMISPHERICAL AND TOTAL EMISSIVITY

The emissivity of a surface that is averaged over all directions is called the hemispherical
emissivity and the emissivity averaged over all wavelengths is called the total emissivity. Thus
the total hemispherical emissivity ε(T) of a surface is defined as ratio of the radiation heat flux
 Emitted over all wavelengths into a hemispherical space (all directions) to that which would
have been emitted by a blackbody at same temperature. Mathematically

E (T ) E (T ) E (T )
 (T )   
 E (T )  T 4
 Eb (T )d  b
0
 For a given value of emissivity, the emissive power of a real surface at a temperature T is
determined by E (T )  E (T )   T 4
b