Pressure

Pressure means force per unit area, exerted

by a fluid on the surface of the container
?How is pressure generated
Collision of molecule with wall
Momentum is mass x velocity
Change of momentum is double
Collision is isothermal = perfectly elastic
Sum collisions over area to get force
Static and dynamic pressures
When a fluid is in equilibrium, the pressure at a
point is identical in all directions and is
independent of orientation. This is called static
.pressure

However, when pressure gradients occur within

a continuum (field) of pressure, the attempt to
restore equilibrium results in fluid flow from
regions of higher pressure to regions of lower
pressure. In this case the pressures are no longer
independent of direction and are called dynamic
.pressures
Definition of Pressure
.Absolute pressure
Absolute pressure means the fluid pressure above
the reference value of a perfect vacuum or the absolute
.zero pressure

.Gauge pressure
It represents the difference between the absolute
.pressure and the local atmospheric pressure

Vacuum
Vacuum on the other hand, represents the amount
by which atmospheric pressure exceeds the absolute
.pressure
Pressure Measurement

A number of measurement units are used for

pressure. They are as follows:
 Pounds per square foot (psf) or pounds per
square inch (psi)
 Atmospheres (atm)
 Pascals (N/m2) or kilopascal (1000Pa)*
 Torr = 1 mm mercury
 Bar (1.013 atm) = 100 kPa
 14.696 lbf/in2 equals 33.9 feet of H2O
 14.696 lbf/in2 equals 29.921 inches of of Hg
Pressure Measuring devices

Diaphragms

Bellows

Bourdon tube

Manometers

others
DIAPHRAGMS

The pressure to be measured is applied to the

diaphragm, causing it to deflect, the deflection
being proportional to the applied pressure. The
movement of the diaphragms depends on its
.thickness and diameter
Diaphragm
Diaphragm

flat diaphragm; (b) corrugated diaphragm )a(

A diaphragm usually is designed so that the

deflection-versus-pressure characteristics are as
linear as possible over a specified pressure range,
and with a minimum of hysteresis
Diaphragm
 Bellows

 Made of Bronze, S.S., Monel etc..

 The movement is proportional to number of convolutions
 Sensitivity is proportional to size
 In general a bellows can detect a slightly lower pressure than a
diaphragm
 The range is from 0-5 mmHg to 0-2000 psi
 Accuracy in the range of 1% span
Bellows

The metals used in the

construction of bellows must be thin
enough to be flexible,ductile enough
for reasonably easy fabrication, and
have a high resistance to fatigue
.failure
Materials commonly used are
brass, bronze, beryllium copper,
alloys of nickel and copper, steel
.and monel
Bellows
 Bellows

The advantages of bellows include their simple and

rugged construction, moderate price, their usefulness
for measurement of low, medium and high pressures,
and their applicability for use in measurement of
.absolute, gauge and differential pressures

The disadvantages of bellows are that they are not

suited for dynamic measurements on account of their
greater mass and longer relative movement. Also they
need temperature compensating devices to avoid errors
resulting from changes in ambient temperature
Bourdon Tube
A bourdon gauge is
commonly used for
measuring pressure. The
Bourdon tubes find wide
applications because of
their simple design and low
.cost
Bourdon Tube
Bourdon Tubes

(a) C-type tube.

(b) Spiral tube.
(c) Helical tube
Material used for Bourdon Tubes

Bourdon tubes are made up of different

materials which include brass, alloy steel,
stainless steel, bronze, phosphor bronze,
beryllium, copper, and monel. Phosphor bronze
is used in low pressure applications where the
atmosphere is non-corrosive while in applications
where corrosion and / or high pressure is a
problem, stainless steel or Monel are used.
Pressure gauges using bourdon tube elements
are made with ranges from 760 mm of mercury
to 700 M Pa or higher for special applications with
.the minimum span being about 70 kPa
Wet Meters (Manometers)
 Manometer basics
 Characterized by its inherent
accuracy and simplicity of
operation.

 It’s the U-tube manometer,

which is a U-shaped glass
tube partially filled with liquid.

 This manometer has no

moving parts and requires no
calibration.

 Manometer measurements
are functions of gravity and
the liquid’s density, both
physical properties that make
the U-tube manometer a NIST
standard for accuracy.
 Manometer
With both legs of a U-tube
manometer open to the
atmosphere or subjected to
the same pressure, the
liquid maintains the same
level in each leg,
establishing a zero
reference.
Manometer
With a greater
pressure applied to the
left side of a U-tube
manometer, the liquid
lowers in the left leg
and rises in the right
leg.

The liquid moves until

the unit weight of the
liquid, as indicated by
h, exactly balances the
pressure.
Manometer
When the liquid in the tube is
mercury, for example, the
indicated pressure h is usually
expressed in inches (or
millimeters) of mercury. To
convert to pounds per square inch
(or kilograms per square
centimeter), P2 = ρh
Where
P2 = pressure, (kg/cm2)
ρ = density, (kg/cm3)
h = height, (cm)
Manometer
 Gauge pressure is a
measurement relative
to atmospheric
pressure and it varies
with the barometric
reading.
 A gauge pressure
measurement is
positive when the
unknown pressure
exceeds atmospheric
pressure (A), and is
negative when the
unknown pressure is
less than atmospheric
pressure (B).
Variations on the U-Tube Manometer
 The pressure reading is
always the difference
between fluid heights,
regardless of the tube sizes.

 With both manometer legs

open to the atmosphere,
the fluid levels are the
same (A).

 With an equal positive

pressure applied to one leg
of each manometer, the
fluid levels differ, but the
distance between the fluid
heights is the same (B).
Reservoir (Well) Manometer
In a well-type
manometer, the cross-
sectional area of one
leg (the well) is much
larger than the other
leg. When pressure is
applied to the well, the
fluid lowers only
slightly compared to
the fluid rise in the
other leg.
Reservoir (Well) Manometer
In this design one leg is replaced by a
large diameter well so that the pressure
differential is indicated only by the
height of the column in the single leg.
The pressure difference can be read
directly on a single scale. For static
balance,
P2 − P1 = d (1 +A1/A2) h
Where
A1 = area of smaller-diameter leg
A2 = area of well

If the ratio of A1/A2 is small compared

with unity, then the error in neglecting
this term becomes negligible, and the
static balance relation becomes P2 −
P1 = dh
Typical pressure sensor functional blocks.
Sensing Elements
The main types of sensing elements are

Bourdon tubes,
diaphragms,
capsules, and
bellows .

All except diaphragms provide a fairly large

displacement
that is useful in mechanical gauges and for electrical
sensors that require a significant movement.
 Sensing Elements

The basic pressure sensing element can be configured as a C-shaped

Bourdon tube (A); a helical Bourdon tube (B); flat diaphragm (C); a
convoluted diaphragm (D); a capsule (E); or a set of bellows (F).
Primary Pressure Elements
Capsule, Bellows & Spring Opposed Diaphragm
Capsule
A capsule is formed
by joining the
peripheries of two
diaphragms through
soldering or welding.

Used in some
absolute pressure
gages.
Use of capsule element in pressure gage
Range of Elastic-Element Pressure Gages
Pressure Gauges

Bourdon tube pressure gauge

 In “C” type Bourdon tube, a section of tubing that is closed at

one end is partially flattened and coiled.
 When a pressure is applied to the open end, the tube uncoils.
 This movement provides a displacement that is proportional
to the applied pressure.
 The tube is mechanically linked to a pointer on a pressure dial
to give a calibrated reading.
Pressure Gauges

Diaphragm-type pressure gauge

 To amplify the motion that a diaphragm capsule produces,

several capsules are connected end to end.
 Diaphragm type pressure gauges used to measure gauge,
absolute, or differential pressure.
 They are normally used to measure low pressures of 1 inch
of Hg, but they can also be manufactured to measure
higher pressures in the range of 0 to 330 psig.
 They can also be built for use in vacuum service.
From Mechanical to Electronic
The free end of a Bourdon tube (bellows or
diaphragm) no longer had to be connected to a
local pointer, but served to convert a process
pressure into a transmitted (electrical or
pneumatic) signal.
At first, the mechanical linkage was connected to
a pneumatic pressure transmitter, which usually
generated a 3-15 psi of output signal for
transmission over distances of several hundred
feet
 Potentiometric type sensor
 A mechanical device such as a
diaphragm is used to move the
wiper arm of a potentiometer as
the input pressure changes.
 A direct current voltage (DC) V is
applied to the top of the
potentiometer (pot), and the
voltage that is dropped from the
wiper arm to the bottom of the pot
is sent to an electronic unit.
 It normally cover a range of 5 psi
to 10,000 psi.
 Can be operated over a wide
range of temperatures.
 Subject to wear because of the
mechanical contact between the
slider and the resistance element.
 Therefore, the instrument life is
fairly short, and they tend to
become noisier as the pot wears
out.
LVDT
Another type of
inductance transducer,
utilizes two coils
wound on a single tube
and is commonly
referred to as a
Differential
Transformer or
sometimes as a Linear
Variable Differential
Transformer (LVDT).
LVDT
Capacitance diaphragm gauge
 Assignment-1

?Selection of pressure sensors