NATIONAL PRODUCTIVITY COUNCIL WELCOMES YOU TO A PRESENTATION ON

CONTROL CHARTS
By B.Girish Dy. Director

Three SQC Categories



Traditional descriptive statistics



e.g. the mean, standard deviation, and range

Acceptance sampling used to randomly inspect a batch of goods to determine acceptance/rejection



Does not help to catch in-process problems Involves inspecting the output from a process Quality characteristics are measured and charted Helpful in identifying in-process variations

Statistical process control (SPC)

  

Statistical Process Control (SPC)



A methodology for monitoring a process to identify special causes of variation and signal the need to take corrective action when appropriate SPC relies on control charts

SPC Implementation Requirements

Top management commitment  Project champion  Initial workable project  Employee education and training  Accurate measurement system


Traditional Statistical Tools



The Mean- measure of central tendency

x !


x
i !1

The Range- difference between largest/smallest observations in a set of data Standard Deviation measures the amount of data dispersion around mean

x
n i !1

 X

n 1

Distribution of Data


Normal distributions

Skewed distribution

Sources of Variation


Common causes of variation

  

Random causes that we cannot identify Unavoidable e.g. slight differences in process variables like diameter, weight, service time, temperature

Assignable causes of variation

 

Causes can be identified and eliminated e.g. poor employee training, worn tool, machine needing repair

Common Causes

Special Causes

Histograms do not take into account changes over time.

Control charts can tell us when a process changes

Introduction to Control Charts

Important uses of the control chart 1. Most processes do not operate in a state of statistical control 2. Consequently, the routine and attentive use of control charts will identify assignable causes. If these causes can be eliminated from the process, variability will be reduced and the process will be improved 3. The control chart only detects assignable causes. Management, operator, and engineering action will be necessary to eliminate the assignable causes.

Introduction to Control Charts



Monitor Variation in Data



Exhibit trend - make correction before process is out of control

A Process - A Repeatable Series of Steps Leading to a Specific Goal

Introduction to Control Charts



(continued)

Show When Changes in Data are Due to:



Special or assignable causes

  

Fluctuations not inherent to a process Represent problems to be corrected Data outside control limits or trend Inherent random variations Consist of numerous small causes of random variability

Chance or common causes

 

Introduction to Control Charts

Graph of sample data plotted over time Special Cause Variation
X

80 60 40 20 0

UCL

Mean
LCL
Time

Process Average sW

Common Cause Variation

11

Commonly Used Control Charts



Variables data
  

x-bar and R-charts x-bar and s-charts Charts for individuals (x-charts) For defectives (p-chart, np-chart) For defects (c-chart, u-chart)

Attribute data
 

Introduction to Control Charts

Popularity of control charts 1) Control charts are a proven technique for improving productivity. 2) Control charts are effective in defect prevention. 3) Control charts prevent unnecessary process adjustment. 4) Control charts provide diagnostic information. 5) Control charts provide information about process capability.

Control Chart Selection

Quality Characteristic variable
defective n>1? yes n>=10 or no computer? yes x and s x and R no x and MR constant yes p or sample np size? no p-chart with variable sample size constant sampling unit? yes c no u

attribute
defect

SPC Methods-Control Charts

 

Control Charts show sample data plotted on a graph with CL, UCL, and LCL Control chart for variables are used to monitor characteristics that can be measured, e.g. length, weight, diameter, time Control charts for attributes are used to monitor characteristics that have discrete values and can be counted, e.g. % defective, number of flaws in a shirt, number of broken eggs in a box

Control Charts for Attributes P-Charts & C-Charts



Use P-Charts for quality characteristics that are discrete and involve yes/no or good/bad decisions
 

Number of leaking caulking tubes in a box of 48 Number of broken eggs in a carton

Use C-Charts for discrete defects when there can be more than one defect per unit


Number of flaws or stains in a carpet sample cut from a production run Number of complaints per customer at a hotel

Control Chart Design Issues

Basis for sampling  Sample size  Frequency of sampling  Location of control limits


Developing Control Charts

1.

Prepare
 

Choose measurement Determine how to collect data, sample size, and frequency of sampling Set up an initial control chart Record data Calculate appropriate statistics Plot statistics on chart

2.

Collect Data
  

Pre-Control
LTL Red Zone UTL Red Zone

Green Zone

nominal value

Yellow Zones

Control Limits
UCL = Process Average + 3 Standard Deviations X LCL = Process Average - 3 Standard Deviations
UCL + 3W - 3W Process Average LCL

TIME

Next Steps
3.

Determine trial control limits

 

Center line (process average) Compute UCL, LCL Determine if in control Eliminate out-of-control points Recompute control limits as necessary

4.

Analyze and interpret results

  

Setting Control Limits



Percentage of values under normal curve

Control limits balance risks like Type I error

Comparing Control Chart Patterns

X X X

Common Cause Variation: No Points Outside Control Limits

Special Cause Variation: 2 Points Outside Control Limits

Downward Pattern: No Points Outside Control Limits but Trend Exists

Typical Out-of-Control Patterns

      

Point outside control limits Sudden shift in process average Cycles Trends Hugging the center line Hugging the control limits Instability

Control Charts for Variables

 

Use x-bar and Rbar charts together Used to monitor different variables X-bar & R-bar Charts reveal different problems In statistical control on one chart, out of control on the other chart? OK?

Processes In Control

Process Out of Control

Shift in Process Average

Identifying Potential Shifts

Cycles

Trend

PROCESS STREAMS
UCL

Sudden stability

Mixtures

Center line

LCL

Interpreting Control Charts

Chart

Description

Example # 1

Example # 2

Interpretation
The process is stable, not changing. Doesnt necesarily mean to leave the process alone. May be opportunities to improve the process and enjoy substantial benefits

Chart points do Process not form a parti- UCL 10 cular pattern and In x 19 Control lie within the upper and lower lcl 30 chart limits Chart points UCL 10 form a particular Process pattern OR one x 19 Out of or more points lcl 30 Control lie beyond the uppor or lower chart limits Chart points are UCL 10 on one side of the center line. The x 19 number of points in a run is called lcl 30 the length of the run

UCL 10

x 19 lcl 30

UCL 10

x 19 lcl 30

Alerts us that the process is changing. Doesnt mean you need to take a corrective action. May be relate to a change you have made. Be sureto identify the reason\(s) before taking any constructive actions(w) Suggest the process has undergone a permanent change (positive or negative) and is now becoming stable. Often requires tha t you recompute the control lines for future interpretation efforts.

UCL 10

Run

x 19 lcl 30

Interpreting Control Charts

Chart

Description

Example # 1

Example # 2
UCL 10 x 19
1 2 3 4 5 6

Interpretation
Often seen after some change has been made. Helps tell you if the change(s) had a positive or negative effect. may also be part of a learning curve associated with some form of training

Trend

A continued rise or fall in a series UCL 10 of points (7 or more consecutivex 19 points direction) lcl 30 Chart ponts show UCL 10 the same pattern changes (e.g.rise x 19 or fall) over equal periods of time lcl 30

4 2 1 3

67

lcl 30

UCL 10

Cycle

x 19 lcl 30

often relates to factors that influence the process in a predictable manner. Factors occur over a set time period and a positive/negative effect Helps determine future work load and staffing levels

Chart points are UCL 10 close to the center x 19 Hugging line or to a control limit line lcl 30 (2 out of 3, 3 out of 4, or 4 out of 10.)

CL 10
1/2 1/2

1/2

x 19 lcl 30
1/2

Suggests a different type of data has been mixed into the sub-group being sampled. Often need to change the sub-group, reassemble the data, redraw the control chart

When to Take Corrective Action



Corrective Action Should Be Taken When Observing Points Outside the Control Limits or when a Trend Has Been Detected


Eight consecutive points above the center line (or eight below) Eight consecutive points that are increasing (decreasing)

Out-of-Control Processes


If the Control Chart Indicates an Out-of-Control Condition (a Point Outside the Control Limits or Exhibiting Trend)


Contains both common causes of variation and assignable causes of variation The assignable causes of variation must be identified


If detrimental to quality, assignable causes of variation must be removed If increases quality, assignable causes must be incorporated into the process design

In-Control Process


If the Control Chart is Not Indicating Any Out-of-Control Condition, then

 

Only common causes of variation exist It is sometimes said to be in a state of statistical control


If the common-cause variation is small, then control chart can be used to monitor the process If the common-cause variation is too large, the process needs to be altered

Types of Error


First Type:


Belief that observed value represents special cause when, in fact, it is due to common cause Treating special cause variation as if it is common cause variation

Second Type:


Remember


Control does not mean that the product or service will meet the needs. It only means that the process is consistent (may be consistently bad). Capability of meeting the specification.

How to use the results



By eliminating the special causes first and then reducing the common causes, quality can be improved.

Final Steps
5.

Use as a problem-solving tool

 

Continue to collect and plot data Take corrective action when necessary

6.

Compute process capability

Process Capability


Product Specifications
  

Preset product or service dimensions, tolerances e.g. bottle fill might be 16 oz. .2 oz. (15.8oz.-16.2oz.) Based on how product is to be used or what the customer expects

Process Capability


Cp and Cpk

Assessing capability involves evaluating process variability relative to preset product or service specifications Cp assumes that the process is centered in the specification range

specification width USL  LSL Cp ! ! process width 6



Cpk helps to address a possible lack of centering of the process

pk ! mi

 3

 , 3

Relationship between Process Variability and Specification Width



Three possible ranges for Cp



Cp = 1, as in Fig. (a), process variability just meets specifications Cp 1, as in Fig. (b), process not capable of producing within specifications Cp 1, as in Fig. (c), process exceeds minimal specifications

One shortcoming, Cp assumes that the process is centered on the specification range Cp=Cpk when process is centered

Computing the Cp Value at Cocoa Fizz: three bottling machines are being evaluated for possible use at the Fizz plant. The machines must be capable of meeting the design specification of 15.8-16.2 oz. with at least a process capability index of 1.0 (Cp 1)


The table below shows the information gathered from production runs on each machine. Are they all acceptable?

Solution:


Machine A

Machine A B C .05 .1 .2

USL-LSL .4 .4 .4

6 .3

USL  LSL .4 Cp ! ! 1.33 6 6(.05)



Machine B

Cp= .6 1.2


Machine C

Cp=

Computing the Cpk Value at Cocoa Fizz



Design specifications call for a target value of 16.0 0.2 OZ. (USL = 16.2 & LSL = 15.8) Observed process output has now shifted and has a of 15.9 and a of 0.1 oz.
16.2  15.9 15.9  15.8 Cpk ! min 3(.1) , 3(.1) .1 Cpk ! ! .33 .3

Cpk is less than 1, revealing that the process is not capable

UTL  C pu ! 3  LTL C pl ! 3 C pk ! min  pl , C pu C

Process Capability (2) 11.0  10.7171

C pu ! 3 y 0.0868
C pl !
2
T

! 1.086

10 .7171  10 .5 ! 0 .834 3 y 0 .0868

C pk ! C p   K where K ! 1

Tolerance Example : same as above, but assume process is centered at 10.7171mm

C pm ! 1
Cp !

Cp

Q  T
W2
0.960

T is the Target

1

10.7171  10.75
0.868 2

! 0.8977

Capability Versus Control

Control Capability
Capable In Control
IDEAL

Out of Control

Not Capable

Excel Template

Special Variables Control Charts

x-bar and s charts  x-chart for individuals


Charts for Attributes



Fraction nonconforming (p-chart)

 

Fixed sample size Variable sample size

np-chart for number nonconforming Charts for defects

 

c-chart u-chart

p Chart


Control Chart for Proportions



Is an attribute chart

Shows Proportion of Nonconforming (Success ) Success Items



E.g., Count # of nonconforming chairs & divide by total chairs inspected



Chair is either conforming or nonconforming

Used with Equal or Unequal Sample Sizes Over Time



Unequal sizes should not differ by more than 25% from average sample size

p Chart Control Limits

p(1  p) p(1 p) LCLp ! max 0, p  3 UCLp ! p  3 n n
Average Group Size Average Proportion of Nonconforming Items k # Defective Items in Xi Sample i i !1

n!

n
i !1

# of Samples

p!

ni
i !1

Size of Sample i

p Chart Example
You re manager of a 500-room hotel. You want to achieve the highest level of service. For 7 days, you collect data on the readiness of 200 rooms. Is the process in control?

p Chart Hotel Data

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 # Rooms 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 # Not Ready Proportion 16 0.080 7 0.035 21 0.105 17 0.085 25 0.125 19 0.095 16 0.080

p Chart Control Limits Solution

n!

n
i !1

1400 ! ! 200 7

p!

i !1 k

16 + 7 +...+ 16
i

n
i !1

121 ! ! .0864 1400

200 n ! .0864 s .0596 or .0268,.1460

ps3

p 1 p

! .0864 s 3

.0864 1  .0864

p Chart Control Chart Solution

0.15 0.10 0.05 0.00 1 2 3 4 Day 5 6 7
LCL

UCL

Mean p

Individual points are distributed around p without any pattern. Any improvement in the process must come from reduction of common-cause variation, which is the responsibility of the management.

p Chart in PHStat


PHStat | Control Charts | p Chart Excel Spreadsheet for the Hotel Room Example
icrosoft Excel or sheet

Understanding Process Variability: Red Bead Example

Four workers (A, B, C, D) spend 3 days to collect beads, at 50 beads per day. The expected number of red beads to be collected per day per worker is 10 or 20%.
Worker A B C D Totals Day 1 9 (18%) 12 (24%) 13 (26%) 7 (14%) 41 Day 2 11 (12%) 12 (24%) 6 (12%) 9 (18%) 38 Day 3 6 (12%) 8 (16%) 12 (24%) 8 (16%) 34 All Days 26 (17.33%) 32 (21.33%) 31(20.67%) 24 (16.0%) 113

Understanding Process Variability: Example Calculations

Average

Day 1 10.25 20.5%

Day 2 9.5 19%

Day 3 8.5 17%

All Days 9.42 18.83%

X p

113 p! ! .1883 50(12)

.1883(1.1883) p(1 p) p s3 ! .1883 s 3 50 n ! .1883s .1659

LCL ! .1883  .1659 ! .0224 UCL ! .1883 +.1659 ! .3542

Understanding Process Variability: Example Control Chart

UCL
.30

_
.20 .10

p
LCL

A1

B1

C1

D1

A2

B2 C2

D2

A3

B3

C3

D3

Morals of the Example

Variation is an inherent part of any process.  The system is primarily responsible for worker performance.  Only management can change the system.  Some workers will always be above average, and some will be below.


The c Chart


Control Chart for Number of Nonconformities (Occurrences) in a Unit (an Area of Opportunity)


Is an attribute chart

Shows Total Number of Nonconforming Items in a Unit



E.g., Count # of defective chairs manufactured per day

Assume that the Size of Each Subgroup Unit Remains Constant

c Chart Control Limits

LCLc ! c  3 c
Average Number of Occurrences k

UCLc ! c  3 c

c
c!
i !1

# of Occurrences in Sample i

# of Samples

c Chart: Example
You re manager of a 500-room hotel. You want to achieve the highest level of service. For 7 days, you collect data on the readiness of 200 rooms. Is the process in control?

c Chart: Hotel Data

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 # Rooms 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 # Not Ready 16 7 21 17 25 19 16

c Chart: Control Limits Solution

16  7  L  19  16 ! ! 17.286 c! k 7 LCLc ! c  3 c ! 17.286  3 17.285 ! 4.813
i i !1

UCLc ! c  3 c ! 29.759

c Chart: Control Chart Solution

30 20 10 0 1 2 3 4 Day 5 6 7
LCL

UCL

Individual points are distributed around without any pattern. Any improvement in the process must come from reduction of common-cause variation, which is the responsibility of the management.

Variables Control Charts: R Chart



Monitors Variability in Process



Characteristic of interest is measured on numerical scale Is a variables control chart Difference between smallest & largest values in inspection sample E.g., Amount of time required for luggage to be delivered to hotel room

Shows Sample Range Over Time



R Chart Control Limits

UCLR ! D4 R
LCLR ! D3 R
From Table

R!

R
i !1

Sample Range at Time i or Subgroup i # Samples

R Chart Example
You re manager of a 500-room hotel. You want to analyze the time it takes to deliver luggage to the room. For 7 days, you collect data on 5 deliveries per day. Is the process in control?

R Chart and Mean Chart Hotel Data

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sample Average 5.32 6.59 4.88 5.70 4.07 7.34 6.79 Sample Range 3.85 4.27 3.28 2.99 3.61 5.04 4.22

R Chart Control Limits Solution

k

R
R!
i !1

3.85  4.27  L  4.22 ! ! 3.894 7

UCLR ! D4 R ! 2.114 3.894 ! 8.232 LCLR ! D3 R ! 0 3.894 ! 0

From Table (n = 5)

R Chart Control Chart Solution

Minutes 8 6 4 2 0 1 2
UCL

_ R
LCL

4 Day

Variables Control Charts: Mean Chart (The X Chart)



Shows Sample Means Over Time



Compute mean of inspection sample over time E.g., Average luggage delivery time in hotel Must be preceded by examination of the R chart to make sure that the process is in control

Monitors Process Average



Mean Chart
UCLX ! X  A2 R LCLX ! X  A2 R
k

Computed From Table Sample Mean at Time i

k

X
X!
i !1

R
and R !
i !1

Sample Range at Time i # Samples

Mean Chart Example

You re manager of a 500room hotel. You want to analyze the time it takes to deliver luggage to the room. For 7 days, you collect data on 5 deliveries per day. Is the process in control?

R Chart and Mean Chart Hotel Data

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sample Average 5.32 6.59 4.88 5.70 4.07 7.34 6.79 Sample Range 3.85 4.27 3.28 2.99 3.61 5.04 4.22

Mean Chart Control Limits Solution

X !

X
i !1

5.32  6.59  L  6.79 ! ! 5.813 7 From

Table E.9 (n = 5)

R!

R
i !1

3.85  4.27  L  4.22 ! ! 3.894 7

UCL X ! X  A2 R ! 5.813  0.577 3.894 ! 8.060 LCL X ! X  A2 R ! 5.813  0.577 3.894 ! 3.566

Mean Chart Control Chart Solution

Minutes 8 6 4 2 0 1 2
UCL _ _ X LCL

4 Day

R Chart and Mean Chart in PHStat



PHStat | Control Charts | R & Xbar Charts Excel Spreadsheet for the Hotel Room Example
Microsoft Excel or sheet

Process Capability
 

Process Capability is the Ability of a Process to Consistently Meet Specified Customer-Driven Requirements Specification Limits are Set by Management in Response to Customer s Expectations The Upper Specification Limit (USL) is the Largest Value that Can Be Obtained and Still Conform to Customer s Expectation The Lower Specification Limit (LSL) is the Smallest Value that is Still Conforming

Estimating Process Capability

 

Must Have an In-Control Process First Estimate the Percentage of Product or Service Within Specification Assume the Population of X Values is Approximately Normally Distributed with Mean Estimated by X and Standard Deviation Estimated by R / d
2

Estimating Process Capability



(continued)

For a Characteristic with an LSL and a USL

P(an outcome ill be ithin speci ication)  ! P(LSL X USL) Z USL  X R / d2 LSL  X = P R / d2


where Z is a standardized normal random variable

(continued)

Estimating Process Capability



For a Characteristic with Only a LSL



(an outcome will be within specification) (LSL X) Z LSL  X R / d2

where Z is a standardized normal random variable

(continued) Estimating Process Capability



For a Characteristic with Only a USL



(an outcome will be within specification) (X USL) USL  X R / d2

Z


where Z is a standardized normal random variable

Process Capability Example

You re manager of a 500-room hotel. You have instituted a policy that 99% of all luggage deliveries must be completed within 10 minutes or less. For 7 days, you collect data on 5 deliveries per

Process Capability: Hotel Data

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sample Average 5.32 6.59 4.88 5.70 4.07 7.34 6.79 Sample Range 3.85 4.27 3.28 2.99 3.61 5.04 4.22

Process Capability: Hotel Example Solution

n!5
R ! 3.894 and d 2 ! 2.326 P(A delivery is made within specification) P(X 10)

X ! 5.813

10  5.813 = P Z 3.894 / 2.326 = P( Z 2.50) ! .9938

Therefore, we estimate that 99.38% of the luggage deliveries will be made within the 10 minutes or less specification. The process is capable of meeting the 99% goal.

Capability Indices


Aggregate Measures of a Process Ability to Meet Specification Limits



The larger (>1) the values, the more capable a process is of meeting requirements

Measure of Process Potential Performance

USL  LSL specification spread Cp ! ! process spread 6 R / d 2
 

Cp>1 implies that a process has the potential of having more than 99.73% of outcomes within specifications

Capability Indices



(continued)

Measures of Actual Process Performance

For one-sided specification limits X  LSL  CPL ! 3 R / d 2

USL  X CPU ! 3 R / d 2
 

CPL (CPU) >1 implies that the process mean is more than 3 standard deviations away from the lower (upper) specification limit

Capability Indices


(continued)

For two-sided specification limits C pk ! min CPL, CPU

 

Cpk = 1 indicates that the process average is 3 standard deviations away from the closest specification limit Larger Cpk indicates larger capability of meeting the requirements

Process Capability Example

You re manager of a 500-room hotel. You have instituted a policy that all luggage deliveries must be completed within 10 minutes or less. For 7 days, you collect data on 5 deliveries per day. Compute an appropriate capability index for the

Process Capability: Hotel Data

Day 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Sample Average 5.32 6.59 4.88 5.70 4.07 7.34 6.79 Sample Range 3.85 4.27 3.28 2.99 3.61 5.04 4.22

Process Capability: Hotel Example Solution

n!5 X ! 5.813
R ! 3.894
and d 2 ! 2.326
USL  X 10  5.813 CPU ! ! ! 0.833672 3 R / d 2 3 3.894 / 2.326
Since there is only the upper specification limit, we need to only compute CPU. The capability index for the luggage delivery process is .8337, which is less than 1. The upper specification limit is less than 3 standard deviations above the mean.