UNIT – III

FERROUS AND NON FERROUS

METALS
Ferrous Metals
 Ferrous metals contain iron, for example carbon steel,
stainless steel (both alloys; mixtures of metals) and
wrought iron.
 Iron ore is readily available, constituting about 5% of the
earth's crust, and is easy to convert to a useful form. Iron
is obtained by fusing the ore to drive off oxygen, sulfur,
and other impurities.
 The ore is melted in a furnace in direct contact with the
fuel using limestone as a flux. The limestone combines
with impurities and forms a slag, which is easily
removed.
 Wrought Iron
 Cast Iron
 Steel
Non-Ferrous Metals

 Non-ferrous metals are metals that do not

contain iron.
 Non-ferrous metals don't contain iron, for
example aluminium, brass, copper (which can
be remembered as ABC) and titanium. You
can also get non-ferrous metals as alloys eg,
brass is an alloy of copper and zinc.
 Nonferrous metals are specified for structural
applications requiring reduced weight, higher
strength, nonmagnetic properties, higher
melting points, or resistance to chemical and
atmospheric corrosion.
 They are also specified for electrical and
electronic applications.
Non-Ferrous Metals

 Aluminium
 Copper
 Zinc
 Tin
 Lead
 Magnesium
 Titanium
 Nickel
WROUGHT IRON

A tough, malleable, readily soft iron that is

easily forged & welded. Fatigue & corrosion
resistant
 Commercially pure iron, containing only
approximately 0.02% carbon
 A fibrous material due to the slag inclusions,
that gives it a "grain" resembling wood, which
is visible when it is etched or bent to the point
of failure
 Although wrought iron exhibits properties that
are not found in other forms of ferrous metal,
it lacks the carbon content necessary for
hardening through heat treatment.
 Wrought iron may be welded in the same
manner as mild steel, but the presence of
oxides or inclusions will provide defective
results.
 Because of the impurities in cast iron and its
crystalline structure, although it is a strong
material in compression, it is weak in tension
and is very brittle. As a result when it failed it
did so in an explosive manner with little
warning.
 Due to the nature of cast iron, the beams produced
were usually of a non-symmetric cross section, the
tensile flange (nearly always the lower flange)
being much larger than the compressive flange
 In the final stage of production wrought iron is
hammered or rolled so, in its killed (as opposed
to forged) form, it usually occurs in simple shapes
of constant section such as plates, tees, angles and
bars.
The chief properties of wrought iron are as follows,
 It is very malleable and ductile, and can be
readily forged, particularly when heated.
 It cannot be cast, as it is fusible only at a very
high temperature (about 2800° F.), and merely
becomes pasty at the usual furnace temperatures,
though because of this quality it is readily united
by welding.
 It cannot be hardened, due to lack of carbon.
 If pulled apart, the fracture shows a fibrous break.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION
ELEMENT CONTENT (%)
Iron, Fe 99-99.8
Carbon, C 0.05-0.25
Phosphorus, P 0.05-0.2
Silicon, Si 0.02-0.2
Sulfur, S 0.02-0.1
Manganese, Mn 0.01-0.1
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES METRIC IMPERIAL
Density 7.7 g/cm3 0.278 lb/in3
Melting point 1540°C 2800°F
MECHANICAL PROPERTIES
PROPERTIES METRIC IMPERIAL
34000-54000
Tensile strength 234-372 MPa
psi
23000-32000
Yield strength 159-221 MPa
psi
Modulus of
193100 MPa 28000 ksi
elasticity
Applications
 Building Constructions
 Rail road and marine
 Decorative items such as railings, outdoor
stairs, fences and gates
 Nuts and bolts
 Handrails.
Cast Iron

 Cast iron is defined as an iron alloy with more

than 2% carbon as the main alloying element.
 In addition to carbon, cast irons must also
contain from 1 to 3% silicon which combined
with the carbon give them excellent castability.
 Cast iron has a much lower melting temperature
than steel and is more fluid and less reactive
with molding materials. However, they do not
have enough ductility to be rolled or forged.
 Steels and cast irons are both primarily iron with
carbon (C) as the main alloying element. Steels
contain less than 2% and usually less than 1% C,
while all cast irons contain more than 2% C.
 About 2% is the maximum C content at which iron
can solidify as a single phase alloy with all of the C
in solution in austenite. Thus, the cast irons by
definition solidify as heterogeneous alloys and
always have more than one constituent in their
microstructure.
Types of Cast Iron

Gray Cast Iron

Ductile Cast Iron

Malleable Cast Iron

White Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron

 Grey Cast Iron is made by remelting pig iron.

It is an alloy of Carbon and Iron. Small
amounts of Silicon, Phosphorus, Manganese
and Sulphur are also present in it.
 The reasons behind its popularity are: ability
to make complex structures and low cost. In
addition, the excellent properties of Grey Cast
Iron have made it one of the most widely used
alloys
 Grey cast iron basically is an alloy of carbon
and silicon with iron.
 It contains 2.5% - 3.8% C, 1.1 – 2.8% Si, 0.4
– 1% Mn, 0.15% P and 0.1 % S.
 It possesses machinability better than steels.
 It has high resistance to wear.
 It has compressive strength.
 It possesses excellent casting qualities.
 Grey Cast Iron is highly resistant to deformation
and provides a rigid frame.
 Grey Cast Iron has low melting point – 1140 ºC to
1200ºC.
 Grey Cast Iron is highly resistant to rust, which is
formed by the reaction of oxygen and Iron.
 Grey Cast Iron has a high compressive strength
and that’s why, it is widely used in posts and
columns of buildings.
 Grey cast iron have low tensile strength.
Uses Of Grey Cast Iron
 Class 300 Grey Iron: Can be used in producing heavy-duty
machine tools, bed, presses, high pressure hydraulic parts,
frame, gears, bushings, piston rings, cams, crankshaft,
cylinder block, cylinder head, etc.
 Class 200 and class 250 Grey Iron: Can be used in producing
gear, cylinder, base, bed, flywheel, cylinder liners, cylinder
block, pistons, brake wheel, gear boxes, pressure valve,
coupling plate, etc.
 Class 100 and class 150 Grey Iron: Suitable for producing
cover body, protective cover, frame, hand wheels, hammer,
floor, handle, box, frame, bed, bearing, pulleys, bench, pump
body, pipe, valve, etc.
Malleable cast iron
 Malleable cast iron has structure being a metastable carbide in
a pearlite matrix.
 Malleable iron starts as a white iron casting that is then heat
treated at about 900 °C (1,650 °F).
 Through an annealing heat treatment, the brittle structure as
first cast, is transformed into the malleable form.
 Malleable cast iron has a higher tensile strength compared to
GCI, and resembles NCI in its machinability, but both have
generally excellent machining properties.
 In general cast iron with a perlitic struture increases the
abrasive wear, while ferritic structures increase the adhesive
wear.
 Malleable iron also exhibits better fracture toughness
properties in low temperature environments than other
nodular irons, due to its lower silicon content.
 The ductile to brittle behavior transformation
temperature is lower than many other ductile iron alloys.
 Malleable iron exhibits good ductility.
 Malleable iron is a good choice for small castings or
castings with thin cross sections (less than 0.25 inch,
6.35 mm).
 Malleable iron can be shaped through cold working,
such as stamping for straightening, bending operations.
 Comparing with the gray cast iron, malleable cast
iron has better strength and ductility, especially better
impact resistance in low temperatures.
 Comparing with cast steel, malleable cast iron has
better abrasive resistance and shock absorption.
 Comparing with the ductile iron, both of them have
good strength and ductility, but malleable iron has
better impact resistance, but ductile iron has better
abrasive resistance.
 It is formed when white cast iron is heated to around
920 deg C and then left to cool very slowly. 
Chemical composition of malleable
cast iron

Composition in
Element
%
Carbon 2.16 – 2.90
Silicon 0.90 – 1.90
Manganese 0.15 – 1.25
Sulphur 0.02 – 0.20
Phosphorus 0.02 – 0.15
Uses of malleable cast iron

 It is often used for small castings requiring

good tensile strength and the ability to flex
without breaking (ductility).
 Uses include electrical fittings, hand tools,
pipe fittings, washers, brackets, fence fittings,
power line hardware, farm equipment, mining
hardware, and machine parts.
NODULAR CAST IRON

 As in gray cast iron, graphite appears as

rouded particles, in nodular cast iron.
 The sulphur and oxygen is eliminated when
added to melt.
 The properties of nodular cast iron is based on
the metal composition and the cooling rate.
 Nodular cast iron contains 3.2 – 4.2%C, 1.1 –
3.5% Si, 0.3 – 0.8%Mn, 0.08% P and 0.2%S.
 It possesses excellent castability and wear
resistance.
 It also possesses very good machinability.
Applications

 IC Engines
 Valves and fittings
 Pipes
 Pumps and compressor
 Earth moving machinery
WHITE CAST IRON
 White cast irons are usually made by limiting the
silicon content to a maximum of 1.3 percent, so
that no graphite is present and all of the carbon
exists as cementite (Fe 3C).
 The name white refers to the bright appearance of
the fracture surfaces when a piece of the iron is
broken in two
 White cast iron displays white fractured surface
due to the presence of cementite.
 Contains 1.8 – 3.6 % C, 0.5 – 0.2 % Si, 0.2 –
0.8% Mn, 0.18% P and 0.10%S.
 With a lower silicon content (graphitizing
agent) and faster cooling rate, the carbon in
white cast iron precipitates out of the melt as
the metastable phase cementite, Fe3C, rather
than graphite.
 The cementite which precipitates from the
melt forms as relatively large particles, usually
in a eutectic mixture, where the other phase is
austenite.
 White iron is too brittle for use in many
structural components, but with good
hardness and abrasion resistance and
relatively low cost, it finds use in such
applications as the wear surfaces.
 White iron has a high compressive strength
and excellent wear resistance, and it retains
its hardness for limited periods even up to a
red heat
 White iron at the surface of a casting is called
chill.
 White iron does not have the easy castability.
 White irons are too hard to be machined and
must be ground to shape.
 White cast iron is made by using an oxidizing
atmosphere to remove carbon from the surface
of white iron castings heated to a temperature
of 900° C
 Even better mechanical properties can be
obtained by the addition of small amounts of
magnesium or cerium to molten iron, since
these elements have the effect of transforming
the graphite into spherical nodules.
STEELS

 Plain carbon steel

▪ Low carbon steel
▪ Medium carbon steel
▪ High carbon steel
 Alloy steel
▪ Low alloy steel
▪ High alloy steel
Plain Carbon Steel

 Carbon steel is a malleable, iron-based metal

containing less than 2% carbon (usually less
than 1%), small amounts of manganese, and
other trace elements.
 Steels can either be cast to shape or wrought
into various mill forms from which finished
parts are formed, machined, forged, stamped,
or otherwise shaped.
Low Carbon Steel
 Low-carbon steels contain up to 0.30% C. The largest
category of this class of steel is flat-rolled products (sheet
or strip), usually in the cold-rolled and annealed
condition. The carbon content for these high-formability
steels is very low, less than 0.10% C, with up to 0.4% Mn.
 Typical uses are in automobile body panels, tin plate, and
wire products.
 For rolled steel structural plates and sections, the carbon
content may be increased to approximately 0.30%, with
higher manganese content up to 1.5%. These materials
may be used for stampings, forgings, seamless tubes, and
boiler plate.
 It contains 0.05 – 0.30%C
▪ Dead mild steel – 0.05 to 0.15% C
▪ Mild steel – 0.15 to 0.20% C
▪ Mild steel – 0.20 to 0.30% C
Dead mild steel
▪ It is used for making steel wire, sheets, rivets, screws and
nail
▪ It has tensile strength of 390 N/mm2 and hardness about
115 BHN.
Mild steel
▪ It is used for making camshafts, sheets and strips for fan
blade, forging etc.,
▪ It has tensile strength 0f 420 N/mm2 and hardness 125
BHN.
Mild steel
▪ It is used for making valves, gears, crank shafts,
connecting rods, small forgings
▪ It has 0.2 to 0.30% C and has a tensile strength
555N/mm2 and hardness of 140 BHN.
Medium Carbon Steel

 Medium-carbon steels are similar to low-carbon

steels except that the carbon ranges from 0.30 to
0.70% and the manganese from 0.60 to 1.65%.
 Increasing the carbon content to approximately 0.5%
with an accompanying increase in manganese allows
medium carbon steels to be used in the quenched and
tempered condition.
 The uses of medium carbon-manganese steels include
shafts, axles, gears, crankshafts, couplings and
forgings. Steels in the 0.40 to 0.60% C range are also
used for rails, railway wheels and rail axles.
 It contains carbon from 0.30 to 0.70% C.
 Steels containing 0.35 to 0.45% carbon have a tensile
strength of about 750n\mm2.
 They are used for making:
▪ Connecting rods
▪ Wires and rods
▪ Spring clips
▪ Gear shafts
▪ Key stock
▪ Shift and break levers
▪ Axles
▪ Small and medium forgings etc.
 Steels containing 0.45 to 0.555 carbon have a tensile
strength of about 1000 N\mm2.
 They are used for making parts those are to be
subjected to shock and heavy reversals of stress such
as
▪ Railway coach axles
▪ Crank pins on heavy machines
▪ Crankshafts
▪ Axles
▪ Spline shafts
▪ Etc
 Steels containing 0.6 to 0.7% carbon have a tensile
strength of 1230n\mm2 and a hardness of 400-450 BHN .
 Such steels are used for making
▪ Drop forging dies
▪ Die blocks
▪ Clutch disc
▪ Plate punches
▪ Set screws
▪ Self tapping screws
▪ Valve springs
▪ Cushion rings
▪ Thrust washers etc.
HIGH CARBON STEELS

 Highcarbon steels contain carbon from 0.7 to

1.5%.
 Steel containing 0.7 to 0.8% carbon have a tensile
strength of about 1400n\mm2 and a hardness of 450-
500 BHN .
 These steels are used for making:
▪ Cold chisels
▪ Wrenches
▪ Jaws for vises
▪ Pneumatic drill bits
▪ Wheels for railway service
▪ Wore for structural work
▪ shear blades
▪ hack saws
 Steels containing 0.8 to 0.95 carbon have a tensile
strength of about 660n\mm2 and a hardness of 500 to
600BHN.
 Such steels are used for making:
▪ Rock drills
▪ Railway rails
▪ Circular saws
▪ Machine chisels
▪ Punches and dies
▪ Clutch discs
▪ Leaf springs
▪ Music wires etc.
 Steels containing 0.90 to 1.00% carbon (high
carbon tools steels) have a tensile strength 580
n\mm2 and a hardness of 550-600 BHN.
 Such steels are used for making :
▪ Punches and dies
▪ Springs (leaf and coil)
▪ Keys
▪ Speed discs
▪ Pins
▪ Shear blades etc.
 Steels containing 1.0 to 1.2 % carbon are used for
making :
▪ Railway springs
▪ Machine tools
▪ Mandrels
▪ Taps
 Steels containing 1.1 to 1.2% carbon are used for
making:
▪ Taps
▪ Thread metals dies
▪ Twist drills
▪ Knives
 Steelscontaining 1.2 to 1.3% carbon are used
for making :
▪ Files
▪ Metals cutting tools
▪ Reamers
 Steelscontaining 1.3 to 1.5% carbon are used
for making :
▪ Wire drawing dies
▪ Metals cutting saws
▪ Paper knives
ALLOY STEELS

 Steel is considered to be alloy steel when the

maximum of the range given for the content of
alloying elements exceeds one or more of the
following limits :
 Mn 1.65%; Si 0.60%; Cu 0.60%
 Alloying elements alter the properties of steel
(which is an alloy of iron and carbon ) and put
it into a slightly different class from ordinary
carbon steel.
 Or in which a definite range or a define
maximum quantity of any of the following
elements is specified or required within the
recognized fiel of constructional alloy steels :
Al, B, Cr, up to 3.99% ,Co, Mo, Ni, Ti, W, V,
or any other alloying element added to obtain
a desired alloying effect.
 Given below is the composition of a typical
alloy steel
▪ C 0.2-0.%
▪ Si 0.3-0.6%
▪ Cr 0.4-0.6%
▪ Fe balance
▪ Mn 0.5-1.0%
▪ Ni 0.4-0.7%
▪ Mo 0.15-0.3%
ADVANTAGES

 Greater hardenablity .
 Less distortion and cracking.
 Greater stress relief at given hardness.
 Less grain growth.
 Higher elastic ratio and endurance strength.
 Greater ductility
DISADVANTAGES

 Cost.
 Brittleness
Types of alloy steels

 Low alloy steels

 High alloy steels
Low alloy steels

 Contain 3 to 4% of one or more alloying

elements
 Similar microstructure to that of plain carbon
steels
 Also referred as pearlitic alloy steels
Types Of Low Alloy Steels

 AISI
steels
 HSLA steels
AISI STEELS

 Used for machine constructions

 Also referred as construction steels
 It have less than 5% total addition of elements
such as Cr, Ni, Cu, Mn, etc
HSLA STEELS
High Alloy Steels

 Contains more than 5% of one or more

alloying elements
 They have different micro structure than that
of plain carbon steels
Types of High alloy Steels

 Tool and die steels

 Stainless Steels
Important Alloy Steels

 HSLA steels
 Tool steels
 Stainless steels
 Maraging steels
HSLA Steels

 High Strength Low Alloy Steels

 Also known as micro alloyed steels, are low
carbon steels contains small amount of alloy.
 Less weight high strength
 It is used as structural alloy steels
 It has high yield strength, good weldability
and corrosion strength.
 0.2% C is added to increase the corrosion
resistance
 They have a carbon content between 0.05–0.25% to
retain formability and weldability.
 Other alloying elements include up to 2.0%
manganese and small quantities of 
copper, nickel, niobium, nitrogen,vanadium,
chromium, molybdenum, titanium, calcium. 
 The case of ferrite increases yield strength by 50%
for every halving of the mean grain
diameter. Precipitation strengthening plays a minor
role, too.
 Their yield strengths can be anywhere between 250–
590 megapascals (36,000–86,000 psi).
 Because of their higher strength and toughness
HSLA steels usually require 25 to 30% more power
to form, as compared to carbon steels.
 HSLA steels are also more resistant to rust than most
carbon steels because of their lack of pearlite – the
fine layers of ferrite (almost pure iron) and cementite
in pearlite.
 HSLA steels usually have densities of around
7800 kg/m³.
 They are used in cars, trucks, cranes, bridges,
roller coasters and other structures that are
designed to handle large amounts of stress or
need a good strength-to-weight ratio.
 HSLA steel cross-sections and structures are
usually 20 to 30% lighter than a carbon steel
with the same strength.
TOOL STEELS 

 Tool steel refers to a variety of carbon and

alloy steels that are particularly well-suited to
be made into tools.
 Their suitability comes from their
distinctive hardness, resistance to abrasion and
deformation and their ability to hold a cutting
edge at elevated temperatures.
 It is designed to provide wear resistance and
toughness.
 Tool steels are used for cutting, pressing,
extruding, coining, of metals and other
materials.
 Their use for applications like injection
molding due to their the resistance to abrasion
is an important criterion for a mold.
Properties Of Tool Steels

 Good toughness
 A definite hardening temperature
 Good machinability
 Better wear resistance
 Risk of cracking during hardening
Classifications

Tools steels fall into three basic categories:

▪ Cold work tool steels
▪ Hot work tool steels
▪ High-speed tool steels
Cold-work steels are further subdivided into:
▪ Air-hardening
▪ Medium-alloy cold-work steels
▪ High-carbon, high-chromium cold-work steels
▪ Oil-hardening cold-work steels
Hot work steels are subdivided into:
▪ Chromium
▪ Tungsten
▪ Molybdenum hot work steels
High-speed tool steels are divided into:
▪ Molybdenum
▪ Tungsten
▪ Intermediate high-speed steels
STAINLESS STEELS

 Stainless steels contain sufficient chromium to

form a passive film of chromium oxide, which
prevents further surface corrosion by blocking
oxygen diffusion to the steel surface and blocks
corrosion from spreading into the metal's internal
structure.
 Stainless steel does not readily corrode, rust 
or stain with water as ordinary steel does.
 However, it is not fully stain-proof in low-oxygen,
high-salinity, or poor air-circulation environments.
Effects of Chromium
Types of Stainless Steels

 Austenitic stainless steels

 Ferritic stainless steels
 Martensitic stainless steels
Austenitic Stainless Steels

 It has austenite structure retained at room

temperature
 These steels are used mostly.
 This steels contains chromium and nickel.
 In these steels, carbon content are kept below
0.15% to avoid the formation of chromium
oxides.
 Carbides are formed during cooling slowly
from high temperature.
 In order to prevent the carbides titanium are
added in a small amounts to austenitic steels.
 This group of steel alloys contains chromium
normally in the range 17-25% and nickel in a
range 8-20%, with various additional
elements to achieve the desired properties.
 The mechanical properties can be increased
with cold working.
Composition

C – 0.03 to 0.15%
 Mn – 2 to 10%
 Si – 1 to 2%
 Cr - 17 to 25%
 Ni – 3.5 to 22%
Applications

 Engine pars of air crafts

 Heat exchanger
 Cooking materials
 Milk cans
Ferritic Stainless Steels

 These steels are ferritic in structure at all

temperature up to their melting points
 This group contains 17% - 25% chrome and
carbon less than 0.1%C.
Composition

C – 0.08 to 0.10%
 Mn – 1 to 1.5%
 Si – 1%
 Cr - 17 to 25%
Applications

 Furnaces manufacturing materials

 Decorative works
 Screws and fittings
 Oil burner
Martensitic Stainless Steels

 This group contains a minimum of 12%

chromium and carbon in the range of 0.08% -
1.5%.
 Due to the high carbon content of the steel, it
responds well to heat treatment to give various
mechanical strengths, such as hardness.
 the above said compositions can be heated to
the austenitic range of temperatures and will
transforms to martensite upon cooling at
suitable rates.
Compositions

C – 0.08 to 1.5%
 Mn – 1%
 Si – 1%
 Cr - 12 to 25%