UNIT-5
Review of Probability and Random
Process

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 1

  
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
 
The term additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) originates due to the following reasons:
•[Additive] The noise is additive, i.e., the received signal is equal to the transmitted signal
plus noise. This gives the most widely used equality in communication systems.
r(t)=s(t)+w(t)(1)(1)r(t)=s(t)+w(t)
which is shown in the figure below. Moreover, this noise is statistically independent of the
signal. Remember that the above equation is highly simplified due to neglecting every
single imperfection a Tx signal encounters, except the noise itself.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 2

  
 
[White] Just like the white colour which is composed of all frequencies in the visible
spectrum, white noise refers to the idea that it has uniform power across the whole
frequency band. As a consequence, the Power Spectral Density (PSD) of white noise is
constant for all frequencies ranging from −∞−∞ to +∞+∞, as shown in Figure below.

Nyquist investigated the properties of thermal noise and showed that its power spectral
density is equal to k×Tk×T, where kk is a constant and TT is the temperature in Kelvin.
As a consequence, the noise power is directly proportional to the equivalent
temperature at the receiver frontend and hence the name thermal noise. Historically,
this constant value indicated in Figure above is denoted as N0/2N0/2 Watts/Hz.
Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 3
  
 
[Gaussian] The probability distribution of the noise samples is Gaussian with a
zero mean, i.e., in time domain, the samples can acquire both positive and
negative values and in addition, the values close to zero have a higher chance of
occurrence while the values far away from zero are less likely to appear. This is
shown in the figure below. As a result, the time domain average of a large
number of noise samples is equal to zero.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 4

  
 

An AWGN channel is the most basic model of a communication system.

Some examples of systems operating largely in AWGN conditions are space
communications with highly directional antennas and some point-to-point
microwave links. While several imperfections are still present (e.g., carrier
 and timing offsets), the underlying signal structure stays intact leading to a
simpler Rx design.
AWGN is often used as a channel model in which the only impairment to
communication is a linear addition of wideband or white noise with a constant 
spectral density (expressed as watts per hertz of bandwidth) and a 
Gaussian distribution of amplitude.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 5

  
 
Gaussian distribution (also known as normal distribution) is a bell-shaped
curve, and it is assumed that during any measurement values will follow a
normal distribution with an equal number of measurements above and below
the mean value.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 6

  
 

is

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Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 8

  
 

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 9

  
 
Pre- Emphasis
 In FM, the noise has a greater effect on the higher modulating frequencies. This
effect can be reduced by increasing the value of modulation index (mf ) for higher
modulating frequencies (fm).
This can be done by increasing the deviation Δf. Δf can be increased by increasing
the amplitude of modulating signal at higher modulating frequencies.
Thus, if we boost the amplitude of higher frequency modulating signals artificially
then it will be possible to improve the noise immunity at higher modulating
frequencies.
The artificial boosting of higher modulating frequencies is called as pre-
emphasis.
Boosting of higher frequency modulating signal is achieved by using the pre-
emphasis circuit as shown in fig.1(a).
Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 10
  
 

The modulating AF signal is passed through a high pass RC filter, before applying it to
the FM modulator.
As fm increases, reactance of C decreases and modulating voltage applied to FM
modulator goes on increasing.
Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 11
  
The frequency
  response characteristics of the RC high pass network is shown in
fig.1(b).
The boosting is done according to this pre arranged curve.
The amount of pre-emphasis in US FM transmission and sound transmission in TV
has been standardized at 75 μsec.
The pre-emphasis circuit is basically a high pass filter. The pre-emphasis is carried
out at the transmitter. The frequency for the RC high pass network is 2122 Hz as
shown in fig.1 (b). Hence, the pre-emphasis circuit is used at the transmitter as shown
in fig.2.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 12

 

 
Fig.2 : FM transmitter including the pre-emphasis

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 13

  
De-emphasis
The process that is used at the receiver end to nullify or compensate the artificial boosting given to the
higher modulating frequencies in the process of pre-emphasis is called De-emphasis.
That means, the artificially boosted high frequency signals are brought to their original amplitude using
the de-emphasis circuit.
The 75 μsec de-emphasis circuit is standard and it is as shown in fig. 3.

Fig.3 : De-emphasis circuit and its characteristics

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 14
  
 
It shows that it is a low pass filter. 75 μsec de-emphasis corresponds to a frequency
response curve that is 3 dB down at a frequency whose RC time constant is 75
μsec.i.e.,

The demodulated FM is applied to the De-emphasis circuit. With increase in fm the

reactance of C goes on decreasing and the output of de-emphasis circuit will also reduce
as shown in fig.3.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 15

  
 
Threshold Effect in Angle Modulation
•The noise analysis of angle demodulation schemes is based on the assumption that
the SNR at the demodulator input is high. –With this assumption, the signal and
noise components at the demodulator output are additive
•Due to the nonlinear nature of the demodulation process, –There is no reason that
the additive signal and noise components at the input of the modulator result in
additive signal and noise components at the output of the demodulator.
•The high SNR assumption is not at all correct in general,–The signal and noise
processes at the output of the demodulator are completely mixed in a single process
by a complicated nonlinear functional.

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 16

  
At low SNRs, the signal is not distinguishable from the noise and a mutilation or
threshold effect is present. –There exists a specific SNR at the input of the
demodulator known as the threshold SNR, beyond which signal mutilation occurs.
•The existence of the threshold effect places an upper limit on the trade-off between
bandwidth and power in an FM system. –This limit is a practical limit in the value
of the modulation index βf.
 

Dr. Leena Arya, Associate Professor, COER Roorkee 17

  
In an FM receiver, the effect produced when the desired-signal gain begins to limit the desired signal, and
 
thus noise limiting (suppression). Note: FM threshold effect occurs at (and above) the point at which the
FM signal-to-noise improvement is measured. The output signal to noise ratio of FM receiver is valid
only if the carrier to noise ratio is measured at the discriminator input is high compared to unity. It is
observed that as the input noise is increased so that the carrier to noise ratio decreased, the FM receiver
breaks. At first individual clicks are heard in the receiver output and as the carrier to noise ratio decreases
still further, the clicks rapidly merge in to a crackling or sputtering sound. Near the break point eqn8.50
begins to fail predicting values of output SNR larger than the actual ones. This phenomenon is known as
the threshold effect.The threshold effect is defined as the minimum carrier to noise ratio that gives the
output SNR not less than the value predicted by the usual signal to noise formula assuming a small noise
power. For a qualitative discussion of the FM threshold effect, Consider, when there is no signal present,
so that the carrier is unmodulated. Then the composite signal at the frequency discriminator input is
                                                              

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Where nI(t) and  nQ(t) are inphase and quadrature component of the narrow band noise n(t) with respect to carrier
wave Accos2 fct. The phasor diagram of fig8.17 below shows the phase relations b/n the various components of x(t)
in eqn (1).This effect is shown in fig below, this calculation is based on the following two assumptions:
 
1. The output signal is taken as the receiver output measured in the absence of noise. The average output signal
power is calculated for a sinusoidal modulation that produces a frequency deviation I equal to 1/2 of the IF filter
bandwidth B, The carrier is thus enabled to swing back and forth across the entire IF band.
 
2. The average output noise power is calculated when there is no signal present, i.e.,the carrier is unmodulated, with
no restriction placed on the value of the carrier to noise ratio.
Noise Characterization - APPLICATION & ITS USES:
 
·        Tape Noise reduction.
 
·        PINK Noise or 1/f noise.
 
·        Noise masking and baby sleep.

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