The Genetics of

Bacteria and Viruses

Stella Magdalena
 The Structure of Viruses
1. Non-cellular infectious agent
2. Protein coat surrounding a nucleic acids core
3. Genomes: DNA or RNA (four to hundreds genes)
4. Capsids and envelopes
Capsid = Protein coat that encloses the viral genome
rod-shaped, polyhedral, or complex composed of many
capsomeres
Envelope = Membrane that cloaks some viral capsids
Helps viruses infect their host
5. Reproduce inside a host cell
Comparing the sizes of a virus, a
bacterium, and a eukaryotic cell
The Structure of Viruses
 viral RNA

protein subunits of coat

80-nm diameter
18-nm diameter,
250-nm length

lipid envelope;
proteins span the DNA
envelope, line its
inner surface, protein coat
and spike out
above it sheath
viral RNA
base plate
tail fiber

reverse transcriptase 65-nm diameter

viral coat (proteins) head, 225-nm
total length
100-120 nm diameter
 Viral Multiplication Cycles

5 Steps Lytic pathway

Attachment Host cell lysis
Penetration Virulent virus
Replication Lysogenic pathway
Assembly Viral DNA integrates into
Release bacterial chromosome
(prophage)
Temperate virus
Viral Multiplication Cycles
Viral Multiplication Cycles
 Classes of
Animal Viruses
Smallpox
Measles
HIV, a retrovirus
SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome), a recently
emerging viral disease

(a) Young ballet students in Hong Kong (b) The SARS-causing agent is a coronavirus
wear face masks to protect themselves like this one (colorized TEM), so named for the
from the virus causing SARS. “corona” of glycoprotein spikes protruding from
the envelope.
 Viral infection of plants
 Viral Diseases in Plants
 more than 2,000 types are known
 common symptoms = bleached or brown spots on
leaves & fruits, stunted growth, damaged flowers or
roots
 most plant viruses have an RNA genome
 spread by two major routes:
horizontal transmission – plant is infected from an external
source of the virus
vertical transmission – plant inherits viral infection
 Viruses and Cancer
Hepatitis B virus can cause liver cancer
Some viral genes can trigger cancerous genetic
conditions
Oncogenes = viral genes that trigger cancerous
characteristics
proto-oncogenes = genes already found in
normal cells, usually regulate growth factors
 Viroids and Prions
• Viroids are naked circular RNA that infect plants
• Prions are proteins that infect cells
• Examples of prions seen in scrapies in sheep,
mad-cow disease, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease
in humans
• How can a prion spread infection?
• Altered versions of proteins that can alter other
proteins
  Model of prions propagation

Prion Original
prion

Many prions

Normal
New
protein
prion
 The Genetics of Bacteria
Chromosome
Extra-chromosomal DNA: Plasmid and Bacteriophage
No intron, no exon
Plasmids
Self replicating genetic element
1-5% size of chromosomal DNA
Non – essential genes
Circular and supercoiled
Antibiotic Resistance, Colisin & Bacteriocin,
Virulence determinants, ……
R Plasmids and Antibiotic Resistance
R plasmids: plasmids that carry genes that encode
antibiotic resistance

R-plasmids are typically transferred through

conjugation; difficult to treat bacteria with drugs as
resistance alleles can be readily transferred

Antibiotics select for bacteria with genes that are

resistant to the antibiotics, and antibiotic resistant strains
of bacteria are becoming more common
 Genetic Exchange
Vertical gene transfer
Genetic information passed from an organism to its
offspring
Plants and animals
Horizontal gene transfer
Bacteria transfer genetic information form one organism to
another in the same generation
Donor cell
Organism gives up its entire DNA
Part goes to recipient cell
Part is degraded by cellular enzymes
Recipient cell
Receives portion of donor cells DNA
Incorporates donor DNA into its own DNA
Recombinant DNA
 Horizontal Gene Transfer

TRANSFORMATION :uptake of “ naked” DNA from

the environment into its chromosome.
TRANSDUCTION : A phage (virus) transfers bacterial
genes from one host cell to another.
CONJUGATION :Bacterial cells join and transfer
genetic material through a sex pilli.
 Transformation
Genes transferred from one bacterium to
another in solution
Naked DNA
Discovered by Griffith (1928)
Used Streptococcus pneumoniae
Two strains
Virulent (pathologic) strain
Had a polysaccharide capsule resists
phagocytosis
Avirulent (non- pathogenic) strain
Lacked a capsule
Griffith’s Experiment
 Transformation

Crossing
over

Insertion
 Transformation
•Natural Competence : able to take up linear dsDNA and
that in order for this DNA to be replicated and inherited
•Artificial Competence (Induced Competence)

E. coli can be artificially induced to take up foreign

DNA by incubating them in a culture medium that has a
high concentration of calcium ions.

This technique is used by the biotechnology industry to

introduce foreign genes into bacterial genomes, so that
bacterial cells can produce proteins characteristic of
other species (human insulin and growth hormone).
07/06/22
 Prosedur Transformasi

CaCl2 pAmp/Kan
E. coli dingin! E. coli +

42oC Heat Shock

Pemulihan
E. coli
pada 37oC

LB Amp+Kan

Inkubasi pada
37oC semalam
LB Amp+Kan
 Prosedur Transformasi

CaCl2 pAmp/Kan
E. coli dingin! E. coli +
Pembuatan sel kompeten

42oC Heat Shock

Pemulihan
E. coli
pada 37oC

LB Amp+Kan

Inkubasi pada
37oC semalam
LB Amp+Kan
 Transduction
Transfer of bacterial DNA transferred via
bacteriophage
Bacteriophage
Virus that infects bacteria

The KEY STEP : Packaging of DNA into the

empty phage heads
 Transduction
Generalized transduction
occurs when random pieces of host cell DNA are packaged
within a phage capsid during the lytic cycle of a phage
host genes are randomly selected and almost any host gene
can be transferred.

Specialized transduction
Only certain genes are transferred
i.e. phage codes for toxins to be produced
Cornybacterium diphtheriae – diphtheria toxin
Streptococcus pyogenes – erythrogenic toxin
Escherichia coli – Shiga toxin (hemorrhagic diarrhea)
 Transduction
Generalized
Infection Destruction of
the bacteria’s
DNA

Replication of
the viral
genome
Production of
viral parts
Lysis Packaging
 Temperate Transduction
Phage
Specialized
Part of
the
bacteria’s
DNA

Replication of
the viral
genome
Production of
viral parts
Lysis Packaging
 Conjugation
Transfer of DNA from a donor to a recipient by direct
physical contact between the cells. In bacteria there are two
mating types a donor (male) and a recipient (female) and
the direction of transfer of genetic material is one way;
DNA is transferred from a donor to a recipient.

Mating types in bacteria:

Donor:
The ability of a bacterium to be a donor is a consequence of the
presence in the cell of an extra piece of DNA called the F factor or
fertility factor. The F factor is a circular piece of DNA that can
replicate autonomously in the cell
Recipient:
The ability to act as a recipient is a consequence of the lack of the F
factor.
 F plasmid
Conjugation
F+ bacteria

Mating Bridge

F- bacteria
 F plasmid
Conjugation
F+ bacteria

Mating Bridge
Original
F+ bacteria

F- bacteria

New
F+ bacteria
 Hfr Recombination

F+ bacteria F plasmid Hfr cell

Integration

F- bacteria

Transfer of
genetic
 Hfr Recombination

F+ bacteria F plasmid Hfr cell

Integration

Interruption
of
conjugation

F- bacteria

Crossing over Transfer of

genetic
 Hfr Recombination

F+ bacteria F plasmid Hfr cell

Integration

F- bacteria

Recombinant
Bacteria
 The F factor can exist as a separate plasmid or as DNA integrated within the bacterial
chromosome

F plasmid Bacterial chromosome

F+ cell F+ cell
Mating
bridge

F– cell F+ cell
Bacterial
chromosome

(a) Conjugation and transfer of an F plasmid

Recombinant
Hfr cell A+ A+ A + F– bacterium

F factor A+ A– A+
A– A– A+ A–
F– cell

(b) Conjugation and transfer of part of an Hfr bacterial chromosome

“moveable genetic elements”