Chapter 21

Nuclear Chemistry

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 The Nucleus

• Remember that the nucleus is composed of

the two nucleons, protons and neutrons.
• The number of protons is the atomic number.
• The number of protons and neutrons together
is effectively the atomic mass.
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Chemistry
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 Isotopes

• Not all atoms of the same element have

the same mass, due to different
numbers of neutrons in those atoms.
• There are, for example, three naturally
occurring isotopes of uranium:
– Uranium-234
– Uranium-235
– Uranium-238 Nuclear
Chemistry
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 Radioactivity

• It is not uncommon for some nuclides

of an element to be unstable, or
radioactive.
• We refer to these as radionuclides.
• There are several ways radionuclides
can decay into a different nuclide.

Nuclear
Chemistry
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 Types of
Radioactive Decay

Nuclear
Chemistry
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 Alpha Decay

Alpha decay is the loss of an α-particle

(a helium nucleus):

4
2 He
238 234 4
92U 
90 Th + He 2
Nuclear
Chemistry
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Sample Exercise 21.1 Predicting the Product of a Nuclear Reaction
What product is formed when radium-226 undergoes alpha decay?

Practice Exercise
Which element undergoes alpha decay to form lead-208?

Nuclear
Chemistry
A. +2
B. –2
C. +4
D. –4

Nuclear
Chemistry
 Beta Decay

Beta decay is the loss of a -particle

(a high-energy electron):

0 0
1  or 1 e
131 131 0
53I 
54 Xe + e
1
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Chemistry
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Electron Capture (K-Capture)
Addition of an electron to a proton in the
nucleus is known as electron capture or
K-capture.
– The result of this process is that a proton is
transformed into a neutron:

1 0 1
1p + 1 e 
0 n
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Chemistry
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 Positron Emission

Some nuclei decay by emitting a

positron, a particle that has the same
mass as, but an opposite charge to, that
of an electron:
0
1 e
11 11 0
C
6

5 B + e
1 Nuclear
Chemistry
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 Gamma Emission

Gamma emission is the loss of a -ray,

which is high-energy radiation that almost
always accompanies the loss of a
nuclear particle:

0
0 
Nuclear
Chemistry
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Sample Exercise 21.2 Writing Nuclear Equations
Write nuclear equations for (a) mercury-201 undergoing electron capture; (b) thorium-231 decaying to
protactinium-231.

Practice Exercise
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the reaction in which oxygen-15 undergoes positron
emission.

Nuclear
Chemistry
A. Alpha particle
B. Neutron
C. Proton
D. Beta particle

Nuclear
Chemistry
 Neutron–Proton Ratios
• Any element with more than one proton
(i.e., anything but hydrogen) will have
repulsions between the protons in the
nucleus.
• A strong nuclear force helps keep the
nucleus from flying apart.
• Neutrons play a key role stabilizing the
nucleus.
• Therefore, the ratio of neutrons to
protons is an important factor.
• For smaller nuclei (Z  20), stable nuclei
have a neutron-to-proton ratio close to
1:1.
• As nuclei get larger, it takes a larger
number of neutrons to stabilize the
nucleus.

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Chemistry
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 Stable Nuclei

• The shaded region in the figure, the

so-called belt of stability, shows
what nuclides would be stable.
• Nuclei above this belt have too many
neutrons.
• These nuclei tend to decay by
emitting beta particles.
• Nuclei below the belt have too many
protons.
• Nuclei tend to become more stable
by positron emission or electron
capture.

Nuclear
Chemistry
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 Stable Nuclei

• There are no stable nuclei with an

atomic number greater than 83.
• Nuclei with such large atomic numbers
tend to decay by alpha emission.

Nuclear
Chemistry
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Sample Exercise 21.3 Predicting Modes of Nuclear Decay
Predict the mode of decay of (a) carbon-14, (b) xenon-118.

Practice Exercise
Nuclear
Predict the mode of decay of (a) plutonium-239, (b) indium-120.
Chemistry
A. 82 neutrons
B. 92 neutrons
C. 102 neutrons
D. 112 neutrons

Nuclear
Chemistry
 Radioactive Series
• Large radioactive nuclei
cannot stabilize by
undergoing only one
nuclear transformation.
• They undergo a series of
decays until they form a
stable nuclide (often a
nuclide of lead).

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Chemistry
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 Some Trends

Nuclei with 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, or 82

protons or 2, 8, 20, 28, 50, 82, or 126
neutrons tend to be more stable than
nuclides with a different number of
nucleons.
Nuclei with an even number of protons
and neutrons tend to be more stable
than nuclides that have odd numbers of
these nucleons.

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Chemistry
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A. Even number of protons and fewer than three stable isotopes,
2 elements; odd number of protons and more than two isotopes, 2 elements
B. Even number of protons and fewer than three stable isotopes,
1 element; odd number of protons and more than two isotopes, 3 elements
C. Even number of protons and fewer than three stable isotopes,
4 elements; odd number of protons and more than two isotopes, 1 element
D. Even number of protons and fewer than three stable isotopes, 3 elements; odd
Nuclear
number of protons and more than two isotopes, 0 elements Chemistry
A. All have an even number of neutrons.
B. All have an odd number of neutrons.
C. F and Na have an odd number of neutrons whereas Al and P have
an even number
D. F and P have an odd number of neutrons whereas Al and Na have
an even number. Nuclear
Chemistry
Sample Exercise 21.4 Predicting Nuclear Stability
Predict which of these nuclei are especially stable: , , .

Practice Exercise
Which of the following nuclei would you expect to exhibit a special stability: , , ?

Nuclear
Chemistry
 Nuclear Transformations

Nuclear
transformations
can be induced
by accelerating
a particle and
colliding it with
the nuclide.

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Chemistry
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 Particle Accelerators
These particle accelerators are enormous,
having circular tracks with radii that are
miles long.

Nuclear
Chemistry
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Sample Exercise 21.5 Writing a Balanced Nuclear Equation
Write the balanced nuclear equation for the process summarized as .

Practice Exercise
Write the condensed version of the nuclear reaction

Nuclear
Chemistry
A. Yes, because a neutron has mass and can
interact with an electrostatic or magnetic field
and is accelerated by an electrostatic or
magnetic field.
B. No, because a neutron has no charge and
therefore cannot be accelerated by an
electrostatic or magnetic field.

Nuclear
Chemistry
Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

• Nuclear transmutation is a first-order

process.
• The kinetics of such a process, you will
recall, obey this equation:

Nt
ln = −kt
N0
Nuclear
Chemistry
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 Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

• The half-life of such a process is

0.693
= t1/2
k
• Comparing the amount of a radioactive
nuclide present at a given point in time
with the amount normally present, one
can find the age of an object. Nuclear
Chemistry
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A. 25.0 g
B. 12.5 g
C. 6.25 g
D. 3.13 g

Nuclear
Chemistry
Sample Exercise 21.6 Calculation Involving Half-Lives
The half-life of cobalt-60 is 5.3 yr. How much of a 1.000-mg sample of cobalt-60 is left after 15.9 yr?

Practice Exercise
Carbon-11, used in medical imaging, has a half-life of 20.4 min. The carbon-11 nuclides are formed,
and the carbon atoms are then incorporated into an appropriate compound. The resulting sample is
injected into a patient, and the medical image is obtained. If the entire process takes five half-lives,
what percentage of the original carbon-11 remains at this time?
Nuclear
Chemistry
 Measuring Radioactivity
• One can use a device
like this Geiger counter
to measure the amount
of activity present in a
radioactive sample.
• The ionizing radiation
creates ions, which
conduct a current that
is detected by the
instrument.

Nuclear
Chemistry
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Kinetics of Radioactive Decay

A wooden object from an archeological

site is subjected to radiocarbon dating.
The activity of the sample that is due to
14
C is measured to be 11.6 disintegrations
per second. The activity of a carbon
sample of equal mass from fresh wood is
15.2 disintegrations per second. The
half-life of 14C is 5715 yr. What is the age
of the archeological sample?
Nuclear
Chemistry
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Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
First we need to determine the rate
constant, k, for the process:
0.693
= t1/2
k
0.693
= 5715 yr
k
0.693
=k
5715 yr
1.21  104 yr1 = k Nuclear
Chemistry
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Kinetics of Radioactive Decay
Now we can determine t:
Nt
ln = −kt
N0
11.6
ln = −(1.21  104 yr1)t
15.2
ln 0.763 = −(1.21  104 yr1)t
2240 yr = t
Nuclear
Chemistry
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A. Spontaneous radioactive processes have differing reaction
mechanisms that do not fit a zero-order or second-order kinetic
process.
B. Spontaneous radioactive processes have differing reaction rates
that do not fit a zero-order or second-order kinetic process.
C. Spontaneous radioactive processes are either unimolecular or
trimolecular processes leading to a first-order or third-order kinetic
process.
D. Spontaneous radioactive processes are unimolecular processes
leading only to a
first-order kinetic process.

Nuclear
Chemistry
A. (a) Yes (see equation 21.18)
(b) No (see equation 21.20)
B. (a) No (see equation 21.18)
(b) Yes (see equation 21.20)
C. (a) No (see equation 21.18)
(b) No (see equation 21.20)
D. (a) Yes (see equation 21.18)
(b) Yes (see equation 21.20) Nuclear
Chemistry
Sample Exercise 21.7 Calculating the Age of a Mineral
A rock contains 0.257 mg of lead-206 for every milligram of uranium-238. The half-life for the decay of
uranium-238 to lead-206 is 4.5 × 109 yr. How old is the rock?

Practice Exercise
A wooden object from an archeological site is subjected to radiocarbon dating. The activity due
to 14C is measured to be 11.6 disintegrations per second. The activity of a carbon sample of
equal mass from fresh wood is 15.2 disintegrations per second. The half-life of 14C is 5715 yr.
What is the age of the archeological sample? Nuclear
Chemistry
Sample Exercise 21.8 Calculations Involving Radioactive Decay
If we start with 1.000 g of strontium-90, 0.953 g will remain after 2.00 yr. (a) What is the half-life of
strontium-90? (b) How much strontium-90 will remain after 5.00 yr? (c) What is the initial activity of the
sample in becquerels and curies?

Practice Exercise
A sample to be used for medical imaging is labeled with 18F, which has a half-life of 110 min. What
percentage of the original activity in the sample remains after 300 min?

Nuclear
Chemistry
A. Yes
B. No. Alpha and beta particles will pass through
matter with equal efficiency but not gamma rays
C. No. Alpha particles and gamma rays will pass
through matter with equal efficiency but not beta
particles.
D. No. Alpha particles are more readily absorbed
by matter than beta particles and gamma rays.Nuclear
Chemistry
 Energy in Nuclear Reactions
• There is a tremendous amount of energy stored in
nuclei.
• Einstein’s famous equation, E = mc2, relates directly
to the calculation of
this energy.
• In the types of chemical reactions we have
encountered previously, the amount of mass
converted to energy has been minimal.
• However, these energies are many thousands of
times greater in nuclear reactions.

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Chemistry
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 Energy in Nuclear Reactions

For example, the mass change for the decay

of 1 mol of uranium-238 is 0.0046 g.
The change in energy, E, is then
E = (m)c2
E = (4.6  106 kg)(3.00  108 m/s)2
E = 4.1  1011 J
Nuclear
Chemistry
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Sample Exercise 21.9 Calculating Mass Change in a Nuclear Reaction
How much energy is lost or gained when 1 mol of cobalt-60 undergoes beta decay, ?
The mass of a atom is 59.933819 amu, and that of a atom is 59.930788 amu.

Practice Exercise
Positron emission from 11C, , occurs with release of 2.87 × 1011 J per mole of 11C.
What is the mass change per mole of 11C in this nuclear reaction? The masses of 11B and 11C are
11.009305 and 11.011434 amu, respectively. Nuclear
Chemistry
A. The atomic mass of iron-56 is the weighted average of the naturally
occurring isotopes of iron-56, not just the mass of the nucleus.
B. The values in Table 21.7 reflect only the mass of the nucleus while the
atomic mass of iron-56 also includes the mass of its neutrons.
C. The values in Table 21.7 reflect only the mass of the nucleus while the
atomic mass of iron-56 also includes the mass of its electrons.
D. The values in Table 21.7 reflect only the mass of the nucleus while the
Nuclear
atomic mass iron-56 also includes the mass of its protons. Chemistry
A. Yes, nuclei having mass numbers around 100
are not very stable nuclei.
B. No, nuclei have mass numbers around 100 are
among the most stable of nuclei.

Nuclear
Chemistry
 Nuclear Fission
• How does one tap all that energy?
• Nuclear fission is the type of reaction carried
out in nuclear reactors.

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Chemistry
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 Nuclear Fission

• Bombardment of the radioactive nuclide with a neutron starts

the process.
• Neutrons released in the transmutation strike other nuclei,
causing their decay and the production of more neutrons.
• This process continues in what we call a nuclear chain
reaction.
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Chemistry
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 Nuclear Fission

Therefore, there must be a certain minimum

amount of fissionable material present for the
chain reaction to be sustained: critical mass.
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Chemistry
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 Nuclear Reactors
In nuclear reactors, the heat generated by the
reaction is used to produce steam that turns a
turbine connected to a generator.

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Chemistry
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A. To provide sufficient water to condense the secondary coolant after
it passes through a turbine
B. To provide a water pond for storage of nuclear waste
C. To provide steam to heat the reactor
D. To provide sufficient coolant to cool the entire operating Nuclear
Chemistry
environment containing the nuclear reactor
Country: Most Reactors Most Reactors Highest %
Operating Construction

A. China United States Germany

B. United States China France
C. France China Russia Nuclear
Chemistry
D. China France Canada
 Nuclear Reactors
• The reaction is kept in
check by the use of
control rods.
• These rods block the
paths of some neutrons,
keeping the system from
reaching a dangerous
supercritical mass.

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Chemistry
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 Nuclear Fusion
• Fusion would be a
superior method of
generating power.
– The good news is that the
products of the reaction are
not radioactive.
– The bad news is that in
order to achieve fusion, the
material must be in the
plasma state at several
million kelvins.
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Chemistry
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A. Alpha rays are dangerous only
when the alpha emitter is near
cells inside the body.
B. Alpha rays do not penetrate the
exterior skin effectively but once
inside the body they are
dangerous to cells.
C. Alpha rays need to be close to
blood cells to be damaging but
other cells inside the body are
far less affected.
D. Alpha rays can penetrate the
walls of cells inside the body
only when the alpha emitter is in
direct contact with the cells. Nuclear
Chemistry
A. Absorbed dose, 3 rads; effective dosage, 33 rems.
B. Absorbed dose, 5 rads; effective dosage, 50 rems.
C. Absorbed dose, 10 rads; effective dosage, 100 rems.
D. Absorbed dose, 15 rads; effective dosage, 150 rems.

Nuclear
Chemistry