Chapter 12:

Negative Reinforcement

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Definition
• Stimulus removed (terminated, reduced,
or postponed)
• Contingent on a response
• Which results in an increase in the
future probability of that response

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Escape Contingency
• Includes 4 terms
– Establishing operation
• Antecedent event in the presence of which
escape is reinforcing
• An aversive stimulus
– A discrimintive stimulus (SD)
– A response
– The reinforcer (termination of the EO)
Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Positive vs. Negative
Reinforcement
• How they are similar:
– Both produce an increase in responding via a
stimulus change
• How they are different:
– The type of stimulus change that follows the
behavior
• Positive reinforcement produces a stimulus that was
absent prior to responding
• Negative reinforcement terminates a stimulus that was
present prior to responding

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Positive vs. Negative Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement:
EO SD Response SR+
Absence of Teacher says “Apple, Apple Saying “Apple,
please” when it is
food for 2 “Snack time” please” presented snack time and
hours and apples on apples are
table present more
likely in the future

Negative reinforcement:
EO SD Response SR-
Math Teacher says Completes Remaining
worksheet “Complete 5 5 problems problems on Completing
problems when
with 20 problems, worksheet math worksheet
problems on then you don’t removed and teacher
student’s have to do the instructions
desk rest” present more
likely in the future
Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 A difficulty…
• Sometimes it can be difficult to
determine whether the stimulus change
was positive or negative
– Turning up the heat
• Adds heat
• Removes cold
– Free time contingent on work completion
• Adds preferred activities
• Removes work

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 A solution…
• Michael (1975) suggested the distinction
is not important
• Instead, define key stimulus features
– Before the stimulus change
– After the stimulus change
• This may provide a more complete,
functional understanding of the
relationship between the behavior and
environment
Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Negative Reinforcement vs.
Punishment
• Often confused because:
– “Positive” and “Negative” are opposites
• But “positive” refers to presentation of the stimulus and
“negative” refers to the termination of the stimulus
– Both involve “aversive” events
• But in negative reinforcement, the aversive event is
present prior to the target behavior and in punishment,
the aversive event is presented contingent on the target
behavior
• And the effect on behavior is different (negative
reinforcement produces an increase in responding;
punishment produces a decrease in responding)

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment
Negative reinforcement:

EO SD Response SR-
Math Teacher says Completes Remaining
worksheet “Complete 5 5 problems problems on Completing
with 20 problems, worksheet problems more
problems on then you don’t removed likely in the future
when math
student’s have to do the worksheet and
desk rest” teacher
instructions
present
Punishment:
SD Response SP+
Teacher says Destroys Teacher
“Complete 5 worksheet requires
problems, student to Destroying
then you don’t complete all worksheet less
likely in the future
have to do the 20 problems when teacher
rest” makes work
request
 Escape and Avoidance
Contingencies
• Escape Contingency

EO SD Response SR-
Rain falling Friend says Put up Escape rain
on your “Do you umbrella falling on
head as you have an your head Putting up
umbrella more
walk down umbrella?” likely in the future
sidewalk when it’s raining
and friend asks
for umbrella

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Escape and Avoidance
Contingencies
• Avoidance Contingency

EO SD Response SR-
Rain Friend says Put up Avoid rain
outside; “Do you umbrella falling on
you are still have an (prior to your head Putting up
umbrella more
inside--nice umbrella?” going likely in the future
and dry outside) when it’s raining
and friend asks
for umbrella

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2008 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Characteristics of Negative
Reinforcement
• Any response (socially appropriate or
inappropriate) can be strengthened by
negative reinforcement
– All are adaptive because they allow the individual
to interact effectively with the environment
• A variety of stimuli can serve as negative
reinforcers
– Unconditioned
– Conditioned
Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.
Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Characteristics of Negative
Reinforcement
• Negative reinforcement can be
– Socially mediated (delivered by another
person)
– Automatic (is produced directly by the
person’s response)

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Factors Influencing
Effectiveness
• As with positive reinforcement, negative
reinforcement is most effective when
– It is delivered immediately following the
target behavior
– The magnitude of reinforcement is large
– It is delivered consistently
– Reinforcement is unavailable for competing
(nontarget) responses

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved
 Ethical Considerations
• Like positive reinforcement, ethical
issues arise from the severity of the EO
that may need to be in place to motivate
the occurrence of the behavior
– The presence of particularly aversive
antecedent stimuli may be problematic
– These stimuli may generate undesirable
competing behaviors

Cooper, Heron, and Heward Copyright © 2007 by Pearson Education, Inc.

Applied Behavior Analysis, Second Edition All rights reserved