A Brief History: "Electricus". de Magnete Was A Treatise of

A brief history
In 1600, William Gilbert called

the property of attracting
particles after being rubbed
“electricus”.
De Magnete was a treatise of
electricity and magnetism,
noting a long list of elements
that could be electrified.
Gilbert invented the

versorium, a device that
detected statically-charged
bodies
William Gilbert, arguably the first electrical engineer
Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems © Pearson Education Limited 2004 OHT 2.1
A versorium
A brief history
1800 – voltaic pile developed by Alessandro

Volta, a precursor to the battery
Voltaic pile
1831 – Michael Faraday discovers

electromagnetic induction
Circuits containing inductors

1873 – Electricity and Magnetism
published by James Maxwell, describing
a theory for electromagnetism
Maxwell’s equations
A brief history
1888 – Heinrich Hertz transmits and

receives radio signals
Spark-gap transmitter
1941 – Konrad Zuse introduces the first

ever programmable computer
Z3 computer
1947 – invention of transistor
Transistor
A brief history
1958 – integrated circuit

developed by Jack Kilby
Integrated circuits
1968 – first microprocessor is

developed
Microprocessor
Basic Electric Circuits & Components
 Introduction
 SI Units and Common Prefixes
 Electrical Circuits
 Direct Currents and Alternating Currents
 Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
 Ohm’s and Kirchhoff’s Laws
 Power Dissipation in Resistors
 Resistors in Series and Parallel
 Resistive Potential Dividers
 Sinusoidal Quantities
 Circuit Symbols
The International System of Units (SI)
The SI units are based on seven defined quantities:
Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature degree kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd
SI Units
Quantity Quantity symbol Unit Unit symbol
Capacitance C Farad F
Charge Q Coulomb C
Current I Ampere A
Electromotive force E Volt V
Frequency f Hertz Hz
Inductance (self) L Henry H
Period T Second s
Potential difference V Volt V
Power P Watt W
Resistance R Ohm Ω
Temperature T Kelvin K
Time t Second s
Common Prefixes
Prefix Name Meaning (multiply by)

T tera 1012
G giga 109
M mega 106
k kilo 103
m milli 10-3
 micro 10-6
n nano 10-9
p pico 10-12
Electrical Circuits
 Electric charge
– an amount of electrical energy
– can be positive or negative
 Electric current
– a flow of electrical charge, often a flow of electrons
– conventional current is in the opposite direction to a flow
of electrons
 Current flow in a circuit
– a sustained current needs a complete circuit
– also requires a stimulus to cause the charge to flow
Electricity
Physical phenomenon arising from the

existence and interactions of electric charge
Charge
Characteristic property of subatomic

particles responsible for electric phenomena
Electron
- + Proton
−1.602×10−19 C 1.602×10−19 C
The unit of quantity of electric charge is coloumb (C)
1 coloumb = 6.25 ×10 18 e
e = elementary charge = charge of proton

Charge
“Charged” particles exhibit forces
- -
Like charges repel each other
- +
Opposite charges attract one another
Charge is the source of one of the fundamental forces in nature (others?)
Coulomb’s Law
q1 q2
r (meters)
(Newtons)
F1,2 is the electrostatic force exerted on charge 1 due

to the presence of charge 2
ke is the Coulomb constant ke = 8.987 x 109 N*m2*C-2
Electric Charge (Q)
 Characteristic of subatomic particles that determines

their electromagnetic interactions
 An electron has a -1.602∙10-19 Coulomb charge
 The rate of flow of charged particles is called current
Electromotive force
 Electromotive force and potential difference

– the stimulus that causes a current to flow is an e.m.f.
– this represents the energy introduced into the circuit by
a battery or generator
– this results in an electric potential at each point in the
circuit
– between any two points in the circuit there may exist a
potential difference
– both e.m.f. and potential difference are measured in
volts
Electrical Circuit
 A simple circuit
 A water-based
analogy
Current (I)
 Current is the Quantity of Charge that pass in one

second (rate of charge flow)
 Unit Ampere
 ampere = Coulomb/second
 By convention the direction of current is in the
opposite direction of the electron flow
Electrons
Current
Current
 i = dq/dt – the derivitive or slope of the charge when

plotted against time in seconds
 Q = ∫ i ∙ dt – the integral or area under the current
when plotted against time in seconds
Current
amps
4
3
Q delivered in 0-5 sec= 12.5 Coulombs
2
1
5 sec© Pearson Education Limited 2004

Storey: Electrical & Electronic Systems OHT 2.18
Why Does Current Flow?
 A voltage source provides the energy (or work)

required to produce a current
 Volts = joules/Coulomb = dW/dQ
 A source takes charged particles (usually electrons)
and raises their potential so they flow out of one
terminal into and through a transducer (light bulb or
motor) on their way back to the source’s other
terminal
Voltage
 Voltage is a measure of the potential energy that

causes a current to flow through a transducer in a
circuit
 Voltage is always measured as a difference with
respect to an arbitrary common point called ground
 Voltage is also known as electromotive force or EMF
outside engineering
A Circuit
 Current flows from the higher voltage terminal of the
source into the higher voltage terminal of the transducer
before returning to the source
I
+ Transducer - The source expends

Voltage energy & the transducer
+ converts it into
Source
something useful
Voltage I
Power
 The rate at which energy is transferred from an active

source or used by a device
 P in watts = joules/second
 P= V∙I = J/Q ∙ Q/s = volts ∙ amps = watts
 W = ∫ P ∙ dt – so the energy (work in joules) is equal
to the area under the power in watts plotted against
time in seconds
Example
 A battery is 11 volts and as it is charged, it increases

to 12 volts, by a current that starts at 2 amps and
slowly drops to 0 amps in 10 hours (36000 seconds)
 The power is found by multiplying the current and
voltage together at each instant in time
 In this case, the battery (a source) is acting like a
passive device (absorbing energy)
Voltage, Current & Power
Energy
 The energy is the area under the power curve

 Area of triangle = 0.5 x base x height
 W=area= 0.5 x36000 sec. x 22 watts = 396000 J.
 W=area= 0.5 x10 hr. x .022 Kw. = 110 Kw.∙hr
 1 Kw.∙hr = 3600 J.
Voltage Reference
 Voltage reference points

– all potentials within a circuit must be measured with
respect to some other point
– we often measure voltages with respect to a zero volt
reference called the ground or earth
Voltage reference
 Representing voltages in circuit diagrams
– conventions vary around the world
– we normally use an arrow, which is taken to represent
the voltage on the head with respect to the tail
– labels represent voltages with respect to earth
Direct Current and Alternating Current
 Currents in electrical circuits may be constant or may

vary with time
 When currents vary with time they may be
unidirectional or alternating
 When the current flowing in a conductor always flows
in the same direction this is direct current (DC)
 When the direction of the current periodically
changes this is alternating current (AC)
Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors
 Resistors provide resistance
– they oppose the flow of electricity
– measured in Ohms ()
 Capacitors provide capacitance
– they store energy in an electric field
– measured in Farads (F)
 Inductors provide inductance
– they store energy in a magnetic field
– measured in Henry (H)
 We will look at each component in later lectures
Ohm’s Law
 The current flowing in a conductor is directly
proportional to the applied voltage V and inversely
proportional to its resistance R
V = IR
I = V/R
R = V/I
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
 At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents
flowing into any junction in a circuit is zero
 For example
I1 – I2 – I3 = 0
I2 = I1 – I3
= 10 – 3
=7A
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
 At any instant the algebraic sum of the voltages
around any loop in a circuit is zero
 For example
E – V 1 – V2 = 0
V1 = E – V2
= 12 – 7
= 5V
Power Dissipation in Resistors
 The instantaneous power dissipation P of a resistor is
given by the product of the voltage across it and the
current passing through it. Combining this result with
Ohm’s law gives:
P = VI
P = I2R
P = V2/R
Resistors in Series and Parallel
 Series
R = R1 + R2 + R3
 Parallel
1 1 1 1
  
R R1 R2 R3
Resistive Potential Dividers
 General case
R2
V  V2  (V1  V2 )
R1  R2
Resistive potential divider
 Example
R2
V  V2  (V1  V2 )
R1  R2
R2
 10
R1  R2
300
 10
200  300
 6V
Resistive potential divider
 Example
R2
V  V2  (V1  V2 )
R1  R2
500
 3  12
1000  500
 34
 7V
Sinusoidal Quantities
 Length of time between corresponding points in
successive cycles is the period T
 Number of cycles per second is the frequency f
 f = 1/T
Circuit Symbols
Circuit symbols
Magnetic Flux
 The magnetic lines of force produced by a magnet is

called magnetic flux.
 1 Weber=108 Magnetic lines
 The magnetic flux do not have physical existence
 Each line of magnetic flux is closed loop by itself
 Magnetic fluc lines do not intersect.
 Line of flux close too each other and having same
direction repel each other
 Lines of flux close to each other and having oppsite
direction attract each other.
Magnetic Terms
 Magnetic flux density B: Flux per unit area

 B=Φ/a wb/m2
 Magneto motive force F: mmf is the cause for
producing flux in a magnetic circuit. F=NI amp-turns
 Magnetic field intensity: It is MMF per unit length
 H=NI/L amp turns per meter.
 Permeability: μ This is the property of magnetic
medium. The flux density B is proportional to the
magnetising force which produces it. μ= B/H
Magnetic terms
 Reluctance: S
 Reluctance is the property of a magnetic circuit by
which the setting up of flux is opposed. It is defined
as the ratio of the magneto motive force to the flux.
 The unit of reluctance is Amp/weber and is denoted
by S
 Permeance: P It is the reciprocal of reluctance. It is
the readiness with which magnetic flux is developed.
It is analogous to conductance in an electric circuit.
Kirchhoff s laws for magnetic circuit
 First law: The total flux towards anode is equal to the

total flux away from the node in any magnetic circuit.
 Second law: In any magnetic circuit, the sum of the

product of the magnetising force in each part of the
magnetic circuit and the length of that part is equal to
the resultant mmf.
Laws of Electromagnetic induction
 Faraday’s law: Whenever the magnetic flux linking a

circuit changes an emf is always induced in it. The
magnitude of such an emf is proportional to the rate
of change of flux linkages.
 Lenz’s law: The law states that any induced emf will
circulate a current in such a direction so as to oppose
the cause producing it. Thus Lenz’s law gives the
nature of induced emfs.

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A brief history

In 1600, William Gilbert called

Gilbert invented the

1800 – voltaic pile developed by Alessandro

1831 – Michael Faraday discovers

Circuits containing inductors

1888 – Heinrich Hertz transmits and

1941 – Konrad Zuse introduces the first

1947 – invention of transistor

1958 – integrated circuit

1968 – first microprocessor is

The SI units are based on seven defined quantities:

Quantity Basic Unit Symbol

Amount of substance mole mol

Prefix Name Meaning (multiply by)

Physical phenomenon arising from the

Characteristic property of subatomic

The unit of quantity of electric charge is coloumb (C)

1 coloumb = 6.25 ×10 18 e

e = elementary charge = charge of proton

F1,2 is the electrostatic force exerted on charge 1 due

 Characteristic of subatomic particles that determines

 An electron has a -1.602∙10-19 Coulomb charge

 The rate of flow of charged particles is called current

 Electromotive force and potential difference

 Current is the Quantity of Charge that pass in one

 i = dq/dt – the derivitive or slope of the charge when

5 sec© Pearson Education Limited 2004

 A voltage source provides the energy (or work)

 Voltage is a measure of the potential energy that

+ Transducer - The source expends

 The rate at which energy is transferred from an active

 A battery is 11 volts and as it is charged, it increases

 The energy is the area under the power curve

 Voltage reference points

 Currents in electrical circuits may be constant or may

 The magnetic lines of force produced by a magnet is

 Magnetic flux density B: Flux per unit area

 First law: The total flux towards anode is equal to the

 Second law: In any magnetic circuit, the sum of the

 Faraday’s law: Whenever the magnetic flux linking a

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