Homogeneous Semiconductors

• Dopants
• Use Density of States and Distribution
Function to:
• Find the Number of Holes and Electrons.
Energy Levels in Hydrogen Atom
Energy Levels for Electrons in a Doped Semiconductor
Assumptions for Calculation
 Density of States
(Appendix D)
Energy Distribution Functions
(Section 2.9)
Carrier Concentrations
(Sections 2.10-12)
 GOAL:
• The density of electrons (no) can be found precisely
if we know
1. the number of allowed energy states in a small energy
range, dE: S(E)dE
“the density of states”
2. the probability that a given energy state will be occupied
by an electron: f(E)
“the distribution function”

no =  S(E)f(E)dE
band
For quasi-free electrons in the conduction band:
1. We must use the effective mass (averaged over all directions)
2. the potential energy Ep is the edge of the conduction band (EC)

1  2mdse
*
 1
S (E)   2 E  EC 2
2 
2   

For holes in the valence band:

1. We still use the effective mass (averaged over all directions)
2. the potential energy Ep is the edge of the valence band (EV)

1  2mdsh
*
 1
S (E)   2 EV  E 2
2 
2   
 Energy Band Diagram
1  2mdse
*
 1
S (E)   2 E  EC 2
2 
2    E(x)
Eelectron
conduction band

EC
S(E)
EV
valence band

Ehole x
1  2mdsh
*
 1
S (E)   2 EV  E 2
2 
2   
note: increasing electron energy is ‘up’, but increasing hole energy is ‘down’.
 Reminder of our GOAL:
• The density of electrons (no) can be found
precisely if we know
1. the number of allowed energy states in a small energy
range, dE: S(E)dE
“the density of states”
2. the probability that a given energy state will be
occupied by an electron: f(E)
“the distribution function”

no =  S(E)f(E)dE
band
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution
The probability that an electron occupies an energy
level, E, is

f(E) = 1/{1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}

– where T is the temperature (Kelvin)

– k is the Boltzmann constant (k=8.62x10-5 eV/K)
– EF is the Fermi Energy (in eV)

– (Can derive this – statistical mechanics.)

 f(E) = 1/{1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}

1 T=0 oK
f(E) T1>0
T2>T1
0.5

0 E
EF

All energy levels are filled with e-’s below the Fermi Energy at 0 oK
 Fermi-Dirac Distribution for holes
Remember, a hole is an energy state that is NOT occupied by
an electron.

Therefore, the probability that a state is occupied by a hole

is the probability that a state is NOT occupied by an electron:

fp(E) = 1 – f(E) = 1 - 1/{1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}

={1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}/{1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]} -
1/{1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}
= {exp[(E-EF)/kT]}/{1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}
=1/{1+ exp[(EF - E)/kT]}
 The Boltzmann Approximation
If (E-EF)>kT such that exp[(E-EF)/kT] >> 1 then,

f(E) = {1+exp[(E-EF)/kT]}-1  {exp[(E-EF)/kT]}-1

 exp[-(E-EF)/kT] …the Boltzmann approx.

similarly, fp(E) is small when exp[(EF - E)/kT]>>1:

fp(E) = {1+exp[(EF - E)/kT]}-1  {exp[(EF - E)/kT]}-1

 exp[-(EF - E)/kT]
If the Boltz. approx. is valid, we say the semiconductor is non-degenerate.
 Putting the pieces together:
for electrons, n(E)
f(E)
1 T=0 oK
T1>0
T2>T1
0.5 S(E)

0 E
EV EF EC

n(E)=S(E)f(E)

E
 Putting the pieces together:
for holes, p(E)
fp(E)
1 T=0 oK
T1>0
T2>T1
0.5 S(E)

0 E
EV EF EC

p(E)=S(E)f(E)

hole energy
 Finding no and po
Ec (max) * 3/ 2 
1  2m 
n0   S ( E ) f ( E )dE  
2 
dse
2
  E  EC e E  EF  / kT dE
Ec
2    Ec

* 3/ 2
 m kT 
 N C exp[( EC  E F ) / kT ] ...where N C  2 2
dse

 2  
the effective density of states
at EC
Ev * 3 / 2 Ev
1  2m 
p0   S ( E ) f p ( E )dE  
2 
dsh
2
  EV  E e EF  E  / kT dE
Ev (min)
2    

* 3/ 2
 m kT 
 NV exp[( E F  EV ) / kT ] ...where NV  2 
2 
dsh

 2 
the effective density of states
at EV
Energy Band Diagram
intrinisic semiconductor: no=po=ni

nopo=ni2 E(x)

conduction band

EC
n(E)
p(E)
EF=Ei
EV
valence band

x
where Ei is the intrinsic Fermi level
Energy Band Diagram
n-type semiconductor: no>po
n0  N C exp[( EC  E F ) / kT ]
E(x)
nopo=ni2
conduction band

EC
n(E) EF
p(E)
EV
valence band

x
Energy Band Diagram
p-type semiconductor: po>no
p0  NV exp[( EF  EV ) / kT ]
E(x)
nopo=ni2
conduction band

EC
n(E)
p(E) EF
EV
valence band

x
 A very useful relationship
n0 p0  N C exp[( EC  E F ) / kT ]  NV exp[( E F  EV ) / kT ]
 E g / kT
 N C NV e ( Ec  Ev ) / kT  N C NV e

…which is independent of the Fermi Energy

Recall that ni = no= po for an intrinsic semiconductor, so

nopo = ni2

for all non-degenerate semiconductors.

(that is as long as EF is not within a few kT of the band edge)
 E / kT
n0 p0  N C NV e g  ni2
 E g / 2 kT
ni  N C NV e
 The intrinsic carrier density
 Eg / kT 2
n0 p0  N C N V e n
i
 E g / 2 kT
ni  N C NV e
is sensitive to the energy bandgap, temperature, and
(somewhat less) to m*

* 3/ 2
 m kT 
N C  2 dse

2 
 2 
The intrinsic Fermi Energy (Ei)
For an intrinsic semiconductor, no=po and EF=Ei

N C exp[( EC  Ei ) / kT ]  NV exp[( Ei  EV ) / kT ]

which gives

Ei = (EC + EV)/2 + (kT/2)ln(NV/NC)

so the intrinsic Fermi level is approximately

in the middle of the bandgap.
 Higher Temperatures
Consider a semiconductor doped with NA ionized
acceptors (-q) and ND ionized donors (+q), do not assume
that ni is small – high temperature expression.
positive charges = negative charges
po + ND = no + NA
using ni2 = nopo
ni2/no + ND = no+ NA
ni2 + no(ND-NA) - no2 = 0
no = 0.5(ND-NA)  0.5[(ND-NA)2 + 4ni2]1/2
we use the ‘+’ solution since no should be increased by ni
n = N - N in the limit that n <<N -N
Temperature variation of some important “constants.”

Simpler

Expression
 Degenerate Semiconductors
1. The doping concentration is so
high that EF moves within a few kT
of the band edge (EC or EV).
impurity band Boltzman approximation not valid.
EC
ED1 2. High donor concentrations cause
the allowed donor wavefunctions to
+ + + + overlap, creating a band at Edn.

Eg0 First only the high states overlap,

Eg(ND)
but eventually even the lowest state
overlaps.
This effectively decreases the
bandgap by

EV Eg = Eg0 – Eg(ND).

for ND > 1018 cm-3 in Si
 Degenerate Semiconductors
As the doping conc. increases more, EF rises above EC

EC (intrinsic)
Eg available impurity band states
filled impurity band states EF
EC (degenerate) ~ ED
apparent band gap narrowing:
Eg* (is optically measured)
Eg* is the apparent band gap:
an electron must gain energy Eg* = EF-EV
- EV
 Electron Concentration
in degenerately doped n-type semiconductors
The donors are fully ionized: no = ND
The holes still follow the Boltz. approx. since EF-EV>>>kT
po = NV exp[-(EF-EV)/kT] = NV exp[-(Eg*)/kT]
= NV exp[-(Ego- Eg*)/kT]
= NV exp[-Ego/kT]exp[Eg*)/kT]
nopo = NDNVexp[-Ego/kT] exp[Eg*)/kT]
= (ND/NC) NCNVexp[-Ego/kT] exp[Eg*)/kT]
= (ND/NC)ni2 exp[Eg*)/kT]
 Summary
non-degenerate:
nopo= ni2

degenerate n-type:

nopo= ni2 (ND/NC) exp[Eg*)/kT]

degenerate p-type:

nopo= ni2 (NA/NV) exp[Eg*)/kT]