DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL AND

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING,
SCHOOL OF ENGINEERING;
CEDAT, MAKERERE UNIVERSITY

By
KADDU DAVID
“““Things are Harder Tomorrow; They are Better
Done Today”””
   Layer thickness Layer description
50mm surface dressing
150mm Granular base
150mm Granular Sub base

 Subgrade: The road portion which is prepared according to

specifications of the engineer, acting as a foundation for the
overlying layers.
 Subbase: a layer of aggregate or treated murrum of planned
thickness and quality placed on the subgrade
 Base: a layer of selected and processed material of planned
thickness and quality above te subbase.
 Wearing course: usually a bituminous surface which may be
either single, double or hot mix asphalt / premix
 Carriageway: that portion of the high way built for movement
of vehicles exclusive of shoulders and auxiliary lanes – for
slow movers.
 Shoulders: portion of road left for pedestrians and short
time / period parking
 Soils are formed from the weathering process of
rocks.
 In soil mechanics, soil is made up of several
phases.
 Can be two – phase or three phase composition.
 For completely dry soil: two phases exist:
 the solid soil particles and pore air.
 For fully saturated soil, two phases exist;
 One of solid soil particles and pore water
 A partially saturated soil, three phases exist:
 One of solid soil particles, pore water and pore air.
 Volume Mass

Air
Va O
Vv
Water
Vw Mw
M
V
Solids

Vs Ms

Volume Mass

Air
O
e
Water
wGs wGsҏw

Solids

1 Gsҏw
 Water content (w) or moisture content (m): the ratio of the
mass of water to the mass of solids in the soil i.e.

w is determined by weighing a sample of the soil and then the

sample in an oven for 24hours at a temperature of 105-1100C
and reweighing
 Degree of saturation (S ): ratio of the volume of water to
r
the total volume of void space, i.e.,

The degree of saturation ranges between 0 for a completely

dry soil and 1 or 100% for a fully saturated soil.
 Void ratio (e): is the ratio of the volume of voids to the
volume of solids, i.e.

 Porosity (n): is the ratio of the volume of voids to the total

volume of the soil, i.e,

 Relationship between porosity and void ratio:

 Specific volume (v): total volume of soil which contains unit
volume of solids, i.e.

 Air content or air voids (A): Is the ratio of the volume of air to
the total volume of the soil, i.e,

 Bulk density (ᵖ) of a soil is the ratio of the total mass to the
total volume, i.e.

 Specific Gravity of the soil particles (G s) is given by:

where ᵖs is the particle density.

 From the definition of void ratio, if the volume of solids is 1 unit then the volume of voids
is e units. The mass of solids is then Gsҏw and from the definition of water content, the
mass of water is wGsҏw. the volume of water is thus wGs. These volumes and masses are
represented in figure (b). The following relationships can thereafter be obtained.
 From the definition of void ratio, if the volume of solids is 1
unit then the volume of voids is e units. The mass of solids is
then Gsҏw and from the definition of water content, the mass
of water is wGsҏw. the volume of water is thus wGs.
 These volumes and masses are represented in figure (b). The
following relationships can thereafter be obtained.

 The degree of saturation, , for a fully saturated soil,

Sr = 1; hence

 Air content can be expressed as

 Prove that

 Bulk density of a soil is expressed as

or
For Sr = 1

 For a completely dry soil, For Sr = 0

 Sand and Gravel: Are coarse grained soil types
possessing little or no cohesion
 Particle size ranges from 80mm for coarse gravel to 0.08mm
for fine sand
 Readily identifiable by eye – visual inspection
 Sand and Gravel: Distinguished by
 their relative stability under wheel loads when confined,
 their high permeability,
 their low shrinkage and expansion in detrimental amounts
with change in moisture content.
 Gravel: Term generally applied to natural pit, river or bank
gravels consisting largely of rounded particles; (Crushed
gravel or crushed stone applies to the products of crushing
larger rocks into gravel sizes).
 Silt: Applies to fine grained soils of low to medium
plasticity, intermediate in size between sand and clay.
 Silt:
 Possess little cohesion, undergo shrinkage and expansion
with change in moisture content, possess a variable amount
of stability under wheel loads
 Organic silts possess appreciable amounts of decomposed
organic matter
 Are highly compressible and unstable.
 Clays:
 Distinguished by occurrence of very fine grains of 0.002mm
or finer.
 Possess high plasticity, have considerable strength when dry,
undergo extreme changes in volume with change in moisture
content and are practically impervious to the flow of water.
 Lean Clay: term is given to silty clays or clayey silts
 Fat clays: are fine, colloidal clays of high plasticity
 Loam: Is an agricultural term used to describe a soil
that is generally fairly well graded from coarse to fine,
easily worked, productive of plant life.
 The soil may be called sandy loam, silty loam or clay
loam depending on the size of the predominating soil
fraction.

 Muck: Soft silt or clay, very high in organic content,

usually found in swampy areas and river or lake
bottoms.
 Peat: Composed of partially decomposed vegetable
matter. Its extremely high water content, woody
nature and high compressibility make it an extremely
undesirable foundation material.
 Moisture Content:
 Is the weight of water contained in a given soil mass
compared with the oven dried weight of the soil expressed a
a %.
 Laboratory determination of moisture content
 W (%) = ((W1-W2)/W2)*100
 W1 = weight of wet soil and container
 W2 = Weight of oven dried soil and container
 If the void spaces in a soil are completely filled with water,
the soil is said to be saturated. The w% shall then be 100% or
more as might be the case with saturated clay, muck or peat
soil.

 SpecificGravity
 Unit Weight
 Shearing Resistance
 Swelling: Describes the expansion in volume of a soil
mass that accompanies an increase in the moisture
content.
 Compressibility: Property of a soil that permits it to
consolidate under the action of an applied compressive
load.
 Elasticity: Property of a soil that permits it to return
to its original dimensions (or nearly so) after the
removal of an applied load. The resilient modulus also
represents the elasticity property of a soil and is more
commonly used in pavement design.
 Soil compaction is the process of increasing the density
of a soil by packing the particles closer together with a
reduction in the volume of air with no significant
change in the volume of water in the soil.
 It is the rearrangement of soil particles to increase
densification.
 It is achieved in the field by vibratory rollers
compacting the soil in layers.
 The placed soil is called a fill. It is compacted to
ensure that the resulting fill possesses properties that
are adequate for the function of the fill.
 The degree of compaction of a soil is measured in
terms of dry density, i.e. the mass of solids only per
unit volume of soil.
 If the bulk density of the soil is and the water content w, dry
density is

, it depends on the water content and

the energy supplied by the compaction equipment referred to as the
compactive effort.

 Soil compaction accomplished by carrying out a Proctor test:

 Soil is compacted in a standard mould by a rammer. It has two
versions, the standard and the modified versions.

Standard Test Modified Test

No. of blows = 27, each layer No. of blows = 27

Weight of Rammer = 2.5kg Weight of Rammer = 4.5kg

Height of fall of Rammer = Height of fall of hammer = 450mm

300mm (12 inches)

No. of layers for compaction = 3 No. of layers for compaction = 5

 Therefore the modified is harsher or has a high
compaction and its graph is higher than the
standard test.
 After compaction, we determine the bulk
density and water content of the soil and dry
density calculated.
 The process is repeated for at least five times
with increasing water content
Max. Dry
density
2
3

Dry density 1

wopt Water content

 Presence of a certain amount of
water is needed in order to achieve
the desired dry density.
 This water can be regarded as acting
as a lubricant which enables the soil
particles to slide over each other
freely in the course of compaction.
 However, as the moisture content is
increased, a point is reached when a
small amount of air remains trapped
in the soil.
 This is the point at which maximum
density is achieved.
 Any increase in the moisture
content above this level simply
results into soils being replaced by
water with a consequent reduction
in dry density.
 Initiallywhen the moisture content is very low, the
air is more and the soil is not so heavy. As we shift
from 1 to 2 some of the air voids are filled with
water.
 Increase in water will increase the volume thus
reducing the density. Any density above 95% MDD is ok
and anything below is undesirable.
 This laboratory test not only defines
the maximum dry density but also
suggests how much water should be
used during the compaction if the
required density is to be achieved.
 If the other factors are kept
constant and the effort of
compaction in increased, the
proctor curve shifts hence
increasing the density.
Dry density
Zero Air Voids Line, Va = 0

Direction of increasing

CE

Water content
 The curve for 4.5kg test is situated above
and to the left of the curve for the 2.5kg
test.
 Thus a higher compactive effort results in a
higher value of maximum dry density and a
lower value of optimum water content;
however, the values of air content at
maximum dry density are approximately
equal.
 Assumptions about the proctor test
 Stabilityof a given soil increases with increasing
dry density
 Compactive efforts in the lab are similar to real
compactive efforts in the field.
 READ ABOUT OTHER SOIL RELATED TESTS:
 Sieve analysis
 Consistency tests: Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit by
Casagrande
 California Bearing Ratio, CBR
 Unconfined compressive strength, UCS
 Plate Bearing tests
 Consolidation test
 Relationship between consistency limits and
sieve analysis; Grading Index, GI.
 Is the process aimed at maintaining or improving the
performance of a soil as a pavement material.
 Performance is measured in terms of ability to
withstand traffic induced stresses in all weather
conditions without deformation.
 Common materials used in soil stabilization include:
 Portland cement
 Lime (Hydrated and Quick)
 Bituminous materials
 Salts e.g. sodium silicate
 Fly ash, by product of some industrial processes
 Geofabrics / geotextiles / geosynthetics
 Moisture barrier membranes
 Hygroscopic materials e.g. brine
 Mechanical
 Chemical

 MECHANICAL STABILIZATION
 Improves lateral restrain or resistance to lateral
displacement under traffic loading.
 Mainly applied in the base and subbase through
controlled grading. There is need for proper
proportioning and blending all sizes of the soil
aggregate particles.
 Good performance is enhanced through close
observance of particle size limits.
 Materials that ensure good mechanical stability have
the following attributes:
  High mechanical strength (crushing strength of >
12,000psi)
 Mineralogical composition that enhances
resistance to weathering
 Well graded with a binding fraction. Need to
follow Fuller’s law of gradation namely:
 % passing any sieve = 100(aperture size of
sieve / size of largest particle)1/2
 Examples of high grade materials include:
 Natural rock
 Gravel
 Sand
 Artificial materials e.g. slag, burnt shale, etc
 Examples of low grade materials include:
Lateritic materials
Coral
Lime rock
CONAID – Surface active agent
(surfactant)
PROBASE
GEOGRIT, etc
 Use of lime - may take any of the following
forms:
 Quick lime (CaO)
 Hydrated high calcium lime (Ca(OH)2)
 Dolomitic lime / Magnesium Lime (CaMg(OH)2)
 Dolomitic quick lime (CaO.MgO)
 Lime is preferentially used for fine
grained soil fairly rich in clays
especially montmorrillonite.
 Lime increases strength and also
enhances durability of souls under all
weather conditions.
 Cation Exchange and flocculation /
agglomeration:
It is most favoured in the presence of
moisture. There is exchange of ions
whereby Ca2+ ions in lime replace other
ions in the soil particles in accordance
with lyoptic series i.e. Mg2+ > Ca2+ > K+ >
Na+.
Clay particles clamp together into larger
sized particles with an apparent change
in texture and plasticity.
 Pozzolanic reactions

With presence of lime, water, soil silica and soil alumina, they all react forming
cementing agents that enhance strength.

Ca(OH)2 Ca2+ + 2OH-

Ca2+ + 2OH-+SiO2 CaO.SiO2.H2O (CSH)

Ca2+ + 2OH-+Al2O3 CaO. Al2O3.H2O (CAH)

 Factors affecting soil – lime reactivity
 pH of the soil
 organic carbon content
 natural drainage – moisture
 presence of exchangeable ions (Na+, K+)
 Clay Mineralogy
 Silica / alumina ratio
 Characteristics of lime stabilized soils
 Improved plasticity (Low LL, high PL, low PI)
 Improved workability
 Improved compressibility – low settlement

Assignment No. 2:
Lime dosages and how it is attained
Cement stabilization mechanisms
 Usually, soils in the proposed highway
route may not be ideal or suitable from
the view of point of soils engineering.
 It may be desirable or necessary to
move away material that is undesirable
and import new one which is better.
 This is normally the case where stricter
alignment is to be followed to control
speed change as well as replacement
of settlement
Selection of the routing site for the
highway
Acquisition of the site
Land surveys to establish relevant
survey data
Location of route through
Right of way demarcation
Staking – section stakes to define
regions of cut and fill
Profile stakes to define curve points
and tangent points along the road
centerline
The requirements for the following types of material:
G15 natural gravel/soils with minimum CBR value of 15
G7 natural gravel/soils with minimum CBR value of 7
G3 natural gravel/soils with minimum CBR value of 3
DR Dump Rock, un-graded waste rock

Material type Typical use

G15 Upper improved subgrade layers and fill
G7 Lower improved subgrade layers and fill
G3 Fill only
DR Lower improved subgrade layer and fill
 REQUIREMENTS FOR FILL AND IMPROVED
SUBGRADE LAYERS
Material properties Material class
G15 G7 G3

CBR (%) BS1377:Part 4 Minimum 15 after 4 days soaking 7 after 4 days soaking 1) 3 after 4 days soaking, measured
1) at 90% of MDD of BS-Heavy
compaction

CBR-swell (%) BS1377:Part 4 Maximum 1.5 Maximum 2 Maximum 2

Plasticity index (%) BS1377:Part 2 Maximum 25 Maximum 30 (no requirement)
Max. particle size BS1377:Part 2 1/2 of compacted layer thickness but not >50mm.
Maximum layer thickness 250 mm compacted thickness placed in one operation
1. CBR values are measured at the specified field density for the respective layer.

 REQUIREMENTS FOR DUMP ROCK (DR) IN FILL

AND IMPROVED SUBGRADE LAYERS
Material properties Material class: DR (dump rock)

Maximum particle size: Two thirds of compacted layer thickness.

Maximum layer thickness: 1 m placed in one operation.

The content of fines shall be sufficiently low so that the larger particles rest against each other when placed in earthworks layers. The Engineer’s decision shall
be the final in cases where doubt or disagreement exists whether the material can be classified as DR.
 COMPACTION REQUIREMENTS FOR EARTHWORKS
Layer and typical material type specified Minimum dry density, lower
specification limit 1),
BS 1377: Part 4
Upper improved subgrade layer, G15 material or 95% of BS-Heavy
better, for layers less than 150 mm below the
formation level
Lower improved subgrade layer, G7 material or 93% of BS-Heavy
better, for layers from 150 mm to 300 mm below
the formation level
Fill, G3 material or better, for layers more than 300 90% of BS-Heavy
mm below the formation level
Fill or improved subgrade layers using rock fill (DR) Compaction method specification
shall apply
Roadbed compaction to 150 mm depth after  
clearing, grubbing and removal of topsoil or other
unsuitable material, where the roadbed level is:
 less than 150 mm below the formation level 97% of BS-Heavy

 150 mm to 300 mm below the formation level 95% of BS-Heavy

 300 mm to 600 mm below the formation level 93% of BS-Heavy

 more than 600 mm below the formation level 100% of BS-Light

1) Refer to SUBCLAUSE 7203(c)

“””for God and my Country””””