Meiosis

Learning objectives

• Outline the phases of meiosis

• Describe crossing over, independent assortment and

random fertilization.

• Compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis.

Label the diagram
 Inheritance of Genes
• A gene is a unit of heredity that carries the
information for a specific trait or body function.

o A gene is made of a segment of DNA.

o Each gene is located on a specific chromosome.

o Everyone has two copies of each gene (one on each homologous

chromosome).
 Chromosomes in Human Cells
• Somatic cells include all cells in the human body except sperm and
eggs.

• Gametes are human sperm and egg cells.

• Each human somatic cell has 23 pairs (sets) of chromosomes, 46
total.

• Each pair of chromosomes are called homologous

chromosomes.

• Each homologous chromosome carries a copy of the same genes,

either from the father or mother.
 LE 13-3
Pair of homologous 5 µm
chromosomes

Centromere

Sister
chromatids
• This is called a
karyotype. All
23 pairs of
homologous
chromosomes
are lined up.
 LE 13-4

Key

Maternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)
2n = 6
Paternal set of
chromosomes (n = 3)

Two sister chromatids

of one replicated
chromosomes
Centromere

Two nonsister
Pair of homologous
chromatids in
chromosomes
a homologous pair
(one from each set)
• The sex chromosomes X and Y are
called heterosomes.

o Human females have two X chromosomes.

o Human males have one X and one Y
chromosome

• The 22 pairs of chromosomes that do

not determine sex are called
autosomes.
• A cell with a full pair of each chromosome is
called diploid.
o Diploid is written shorthand as 2n.
o All somatic cells are diploid (46 chromosomes).

• A cell with only one of each homologous

chromosome is called haploid.
o Haploid is written shorthand as n.
o All gametes are haploid and have 23 total chromosomes.
• Gametes are haploid cells, containing only one set of
chromosomes
• For humans, this means 23 total chromosomes (no
pairs)
o This includes 22 autosomes and a single sex chromosome
o In an unfertilized egg (ovum), the sex chromosome is always X
o In a sperm cell, the sex chromosome may be either X or Y
 Chromosomes and the
Human Sex Cycle
• At sexual maturity, the ovaries and testes begin producing
sperm and eggs through meiosis.
o Gametes are the only types of human cells produced by meiosis, rather than
mitosis
• Meiosis is a form of cell division that results in one set of
chromosomes in each gamete instead of two.
o The resulting daughter cells are haploid.
• When fertilization occurs, the haploid sperm and haploid
egg fuse together to form a diploid embryo.
 Interphase
• At the end of interphase, each cell has grown into its
full size, produced a full set of organelles, and
duplicated its DNA.
o The cell is diploid at this point.
• The nucleus contains 23 homologous chromosome pairs.
• Each chromosome is made of two sister chromatids (copies).
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Prophase I

• The cells begin to divide, and the chromosomes pair up, forming a
structure called a tetrad, which contains four chromatids.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Prophase I
• As homologous chromosomes pair up and form tetrads, they undergo
a process called crossing-over.
• First, the chromatids of the homologous chromosomes overlap
each other.
• Then, the crossed sections of the chromatids are exchanged.
• Crossing-over is important because it produces new combinations
of genes in the cell.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Metaphase I

• As prophase I ends, a spindle forms and attaches to each tetrad.

• During metaphase I of meiosis, paired homologous
chromosomes line up across the center of the cell.
 
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Anaphase I
• During anaphase I, spindle fibers pull each homologous
chromosome pair toward opposite ends of the cell.
• When anaphase I is complete, the separated chromosomes
cluster at opposite ends of the cell.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Telophase I and Cytokinesis

• During telophase I, a nuclear membrane forms around each
cluster of chromosomes.
• Cytokinesis follows telophase I, forming two new cells.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Summary of Meiosis I
• Two new haploid cells have been produced.
• Each haploid cell contains one chromosome out of the original
pair.
• Each chromosome still contains two sister chromatids.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Prophase II
• As the cells enter prophase II,
their chromosomes—each
consisting of two chromatids—
become visible.
• The chromosomes do not pair to
form tetrads, because the
homologous pairs were already
separated during meiosis I.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Metaphase II

• During metaphase of meiosis II,

chromosomes line up in the center of
each cell.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Anaphase II
• As the cell enters anaphase, the paired
chromatids separate.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Telophase II and Cytokinesis

• The two daughter cells from Meiosis I divide, resulting in four
daughter cells, each with two chromatids.
• These four daughter cells now contain the haploid number (N)—
just two chromosomes each.
Lesson Overview Meiosis

Summary of Meiosis II
• A total of four cells have been produced.
• Each cell is haploid and only contains one out of the original
pairs of homologous chromosomes.
• Each chromosome only contains a single chromatid.
 A Comparison of Mitosis
and Meiosis
• Mitosis produces cells that are genetically identical to the
parent cell.

• Meiosis reduces the number of chromosomes sets from two

(diploid) to one (haploid).

• Meiosis allows crossing over of chromosomes.

o This produces cells that are genetically different from the parents and each
other.
LE 13-9
MITOSIS MEIOSIS

Parent cell Chiasma (site of

MEIOSIS I
(before chromosome replication) crossing over)

Propase Prophase I
Chromosome Chromosome
replication replication Tetrad formed by
Duplicated chromosome synapsis of homologous
2n = 6
(two sister chromatids) chromosomes

Chromosomes Tetrads
Metaphase positioned at the positioned at the Metaphase I
metaphase plate metaphase plate

Anaphase Sister chromatids Homologues Anaphase I

Telophase separate during separate Telophase I
anaphase during
Haploid
anaphase I;
n=3
sister
chromatids
Daughter
remain together
cells of
meiosis I

2n 2n MEIOSIS II
Daughter cells
of mitosis
n n n n
Daughter cells of meiosis II

Sister chromatids separate during anaphase II

• Three events are unique to meiosis, and all three occur
in meiosis l:
At anaphase I, it is
Synapsis and homologous
crossing over in chromosomes, instead of
prophase I: sister chromatids that
Homologous separate and are carried to
chromosomes opposite poles of the cell
physically connect
and exchange genetic At the metaphase I
information plate, there are
paired homologous
chromosomes
(tetrads), instead of
individual replicated
chromosomes
 Mitosis Meiosis

DNA During During

replication interphase interphase
Divisions One Two

Synapsis and Do not occur Form tetrads in

crossing over prophase I
Daughter Two diploid, Four haploid,
cells, genetic identical to different from
parent cell parent cell and
composition each other
Role in animal Produces cells Produces
body for growth and gametes
tissue repair
 Genetic Variation Among
Offspring
• The behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and
fertilization is responsible for most of the variation that
arises in each generation
• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic variation:
o Independent assortment of chromosomes
o Crossing over
o Random fertilization
 Independent Assortment
of Chromosomes
• In independent assortment during metaphase I, each
pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal
homologous chromosomes into daughter cells
independently of the other pairs.
• Example:
o One human sperm cell could contain 15 chromosomes from his father,
and 8 from his mother
o Another contains 20 from the mother, 3 from the father.
LE 13-10

Key

Maternal set of
chromosomes Possibility 2
Possibility 1
Paternal set of
chromosomes

Two equally probable

arrangements of
chromosomes at
metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Combination 1 Combination 2 Combination 3 Combination 4

 Independent Assortment
of Chromosomes
• The number of combinations possible when
chromosomes assort independently into gametes is
calculated by 2n, where n is the haploid number

• For humans (n = 23):

o 223 = 8,388,608 possible combinations!
 Crossing Over
• Crossing over produces new chromosomes with a mixture of genes from
each parent.

• Crossing over occurs during Prophase I

• Instead of a chromosome that is 100% from the person’s father or

mother, it might now be 95% from the father, 5% from the mother.
LE 13-11
Prophase I Nonsister
of meiosis chromatids

Tetrad

Chiasma,
site of
crossing
over

Metaphase I

Metaphase II

Daughter
cells

Recombinant
chromosomes
 Random Fertilization

• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation because

any sperm can fuse with any egg.
 Genetic Diversity
• How many possible combinations of genes are there from two
parents?
• Independent assortment:
223 = 8,388,608 combinations of chromosomes in each sperm or egg
cell.
• Random assortment:
8.4 million possible sperm combinations
+ 8.4 million possible egg combinations
= 16.8 trillion possible embryos
 Genetic Diversity
• How many possible combinations of genes are there from two
parents?

• Crossing over
o Average of 1,000 genes in each chromosome

o At the most, about half of the chromosome can cross over to its

homologous partner.
o This results in 3.3 novemquardragintillion (1 followed by 150 zeros) gene

combinations for each chromosome pair crossing over.

 Genetic Diversity
• How many possible combinations of genes are there from two
parents?
• Total
3.3 novemquardragintillion possible chromosome combinations
x 23 chromosomes
x 16.8 trillion possible sperm-egg combinations
=1.3 quinquinquagintillion (1 followed by 168 zeros) possible
different genetic combinations for two people.
http://higheredbcs.wiley.com/legacy/college/tortora/0470565101/hearthi
s_ill/pap13e_ch03_illustr_audio_mp3_am/simulations/hear/compare_m
m.html

http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/bio_animations/08_MH_Meiosis_Web/

http://www.wiley.com/legacy/products/worldwide/canada/snustad/biolog
ybasics/ch02/meiosis.html

http://www.cellsalive.com/meiosis_js.htm

http://highered.mheducation.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chap
ter3/animation__how_meiosis_works.html

http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/meiosis.ht
ml