BIOLOGICAL

MACROMOLECULES
Synthesis of biological
macromolecules
■ Biological macromolecules are large
molecules necessary for life, that are
built from smaller organic molecules.
■ Four major classes of biological
macromolecules (carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and nucleic acids).
Dehydration synthesis
■ Most macromolecules are made from
subunits, or building blocks called
monomers.
■ Using covalent bonds, the monomers combine
with each other using covalent bonds to
form larger molecules known as polymers.
■ Dehydration synthesis which means “to put
together while losing water.”
Hydrolysis
■ Polymers are broken down into monomers in
a process known as hydrolysis, which means
“ to split water,” a reaction in which a
water molecules is used during the
breakdown.
■ Dehydration and hydrolysis ate catalyzed,
or sped up” by specific enzymes.
Dehydration reactions involve the
formation of new bonds, requiring energy,
while hydrolysis reactions break bonds and
release energy.
■ Amylase, sucrase, lactase, and maltase for
carbohydrates
■ Pepsin and peptidase for protein
■ Hydrochloric acid; lipids are broken down
by lipases.
 ELEMENTS
The simplest of substance found
in the body such as C, H, O, N

COMPOUND
Made up of two more elements
that are chemically joined
together
THAT CAN BE CLASIFIED AS

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS ORGANIC COMPOUND

 WATER  PROTEINS (amino acids)

 ACIDS  CARBOHYDRATES
 BASES (monosaccharides)
 SALTS  LIPIDS (fatty acids and
 CARBON DIOXIDE glycerol)
 NUCLEIC ACIDS (DNA and
RNA)
CONCEPT MAP OF BIOMOLECULES
INORGANIC
COMPOUND
WATER
■ Water dissolves an enormous variety of
solutes necessary for living (solvent
dissolving agent while solute is a
substance that is dissolved).
Characteristics and functions
of water in a living system:
■ Biological solvent- ability to dissolve
many substances including essential
molecules in the body.
■ High heat capacity- a large amount of heat
is needed to increase in temperature;
thus, it help in maintaining a constant
body temperature.
■ High heat of vaporization- helps in
preventing dehydration in a organism
■ High heat of fusion- helps organism from
freezing at low temperature.
■ Medium for chemical and physical process-
can serve as a place for exchanging gases
and nutrients and elimination of wastes
■ Means of transport- can serve as a
transporter/vehicles in the distribution
of nutrients, gases, and collection of
waste products all over the body.
ACIDS AND BASES
■ ACIDS- These are inorganic compounds that
taste sour, change color of certain
indicators.
■ BASES- this is type of inorganic compounds
that accepts hydrogen ions. It has a
bitter taste, slippery.
Electrolytes
■ Can conduct electricity within the body
also known as salts or ions. It is
important in maintaining voltages across
the cell membranes and it sends electrical
impulses in nerves cells and muscle cells
during muscle contraction.
Carbon dioxide
■ This is essential for plants to perform
photosynthesis. It is one of the raw
materials needed in the manufacturing of
glucose.
ORGANIC COMPOUND
Carbohydrates
■ These provide energy to the body,
particularly through glucose, a simple
sugar that is a component of starch and an
ingredient in many staple foods.
■ The stoichiometric formula (CH₂O).
■ This formula also explain the origin of
the term “carbohydrate”.
CARBOHYDRATES ARE
CLASSIFIED INTO
THREE SUBTYPES:
Monosaccharides
Disaccharides
polysaccharides
Monosaccharides
■ Mono-= “one” ; sacchar-= “sweet”) are
simple sugar. The most common of which is
glucose. The number of carbons usually
range from three to seven.
■ Monosaccharides are simples sugars which
consist of one sugar units.
Glucose
■ also known as
dextrose or
blood sugar.
■ Important fuel
sugar for the
cells since
this is an
instant source
of energy.
CARBOHYDRATES
Fructose
■ Also known as corn sugar
is the sweetest sugar
found in fruits.
Galactose
■ Galactose is a
monosaccharide
produced in many
organisms,
especially mammals.
Same composition as
glucose but
different structure.
Disaccharides
■ Di-= “two” form when two monosaccharides
undergo dehydration reaction.
■ Which are complex sugars made up of 2
molecules chemically joined together.
■ These are the common disaccharides include
lactose, maltose, and sucrose.
Sucrose
■ commonly known as table
sugar in its refined
form, is a disaccharide
found in many plants.
It is made up of the
monosaccharides glucose
and fructose. In the
form of sugar, sucrose
is a very important
component of the human
diet as a sweetener.
Maltose
■ Maltose, also
known as malt
sugar, is formed
from two glucose
molecules. In
plants, maltose is
formed when starch
is broken down for
food. It is used
by germinating
seeds in order to
grow.
Lactose
■ The milk of mammals
is high in lactose
and provides
nutrients for
infants. Most
mammals can only
digest lactose as
infants, and lose
this ability as
they mature.
Polysaccharides
■ A long chain of monosaccharides linked by
glycosidic bonds is known as a
polysaccharide (poly-= “many”).
■ Starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin
are primary example are polysaccharides.
Starch
■ Is made up of glucose monomers.
■ Starch is a polymeric carbohydrate
consisting of numerous glucose units
joined by glycosidic bonds. This
polysaccharide is produced by most green
plants as energy storage.
■ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starch#:~:text=Starch%20or%20
amylum%20is%20a,green%20plants%20as%20energy%20stor
age.
Glycogen
■ Glycogen is a multibranched polysaccharide
of glucose that serves as a form of energy
storage in animals, fungi, and bacteria
The polysaccharide structure represents
the main storage form of glucose in the
body.
Cellulose
■ Cellulose is a molecule, consisting of
hundreds – and sometimes even thousands –
of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Cellulose is the main substance in the
walls of plant cells, helping plants to
remain stiff and upright.
■ Humans cannot digest cellulose, but it is
important in the diet as fiber.
Chitin
■ When secreted inside or outside of cells
in an organized way, the fibers form weak
bonds between each other. This adds
strength to the entire structure. Chitin
and cellulose are both made from glucose
monomers, while keratin is a fibrous
protein.
Benefits of carbohydrates
■ Some diets completely forbid carbohydrate
consumption, claiming that a low-
carbohydrate diet helps people to lose
weight faster.
■ Carbohydrates should be supplemented with
proteins, vitamins, and fats to be parts
of a well-balanced diet.
Lipids
■ Lipid from the Greek
word lipos which means
fat.
■ Lipids store and
produce energy, serve
as insulating materials
to prevent heat loss
and protection against
extreme cold, serve as
solvent for fat-soluble
vitamins and hormones,
and prevent water loss
in the skin.
Fats
■ A fat
molecule
consists
of two
main
components
- glycerol
and fatty
acids.
■ Glycerol or glycerin is
a colorless, odorless,
viscous liquid that is
sweet-tasting and
mostly non-toxic. It is
widely used in the food
industry as a sweetener
and humectant and in
pharmaceutical
formulations. Glycerol
is an important
component of
triglycerides ( fats
and oils) and of
phospholipids.
■ fatty acid is a
carboxylic acid
with a long
aliphatic chain,
which is either
saturated or
unsaturated. Most
naturally
occurring fatty
acids have an
unbranched chain
of an even number
of carbon atoms,
from 4 to 28.
Trans fats
■ Trans fats, or trans-fatty acids, are a
form of unsaturated fat. They come in both
natural and artificial forms. Natural, or
ruminant, trans fats occur in the meat and
dairy from ruminant animals, such as
cattle, sheep, and goats. They form
naturally when bacteria in these animals'
stomachs digest grass
Omega-3 fatty acids
■ Omega-3 fatty acids are found in foods,
such as fish and flaxseed, and in dietary
supplements, such as fish oil.
Waxes
■ Was covers the feathers of some aquatic
and the leaf surfaces of some plants.
Because of the hydrophobic nature of
waxes, they prevent water from sticking on
the surface.
Phospholipids
■ Are major constituents of the plasma
membrane, the outermost layer of animal
cells.
■ are molecules with hydrophilic phosphate
heads and hydrophobic lipid tails. They
comprise cellular membranes, regulate
certain cellular processes, and possess
both stabilizing and dynamic qualities
that can aid in drug delivery.
Steroids
■ Steroids have a fused
ring structure.
■ They include many
hormones, alkaloids,
and vitamins.
Protein
■ Are the most abundant organic molecules in
living systems and have the most diverse
range of functions of all macromolecules.
■ Proteins may be structural, regulatory,
contractile, or protectible; they may
serve in transport, storage, or membranes;
or they may be toxins or enzymes.
There are seven major classes
of proteins which include:
■ Structure- found in the hair of mammals;
fiber that makes up the tendons and
ligaments.
■ Contractile protein- provide muscular
movement
■ Storage protein- such as ovalbumin, main
substance of egg white.
■ Defensive protein- includes antibodies
that promote protection against foreign
body.
■ Transport protein- includes hemoglobin,
iron-containing protein in the blood that
transports oxygen from the lungs to the
other parts of the body.
■ Signal protein- such as hormones which
help coordinate body activities
■ Enzymes- serves as the chemical catalyst
that changes the rate of chemical
reaction.
TYPE EXAMPLES FUNCTIONS

DIGESTIVE ENZYMES AMYLASE, LIPASE,PEPSIN,TRYPSIN HELP IN DIGESTION OF FOOD BY

CATABOLIZING NUTRIENTS INTO
MONOMERIC UNITS
TRANSPORT HEMOGLOBIN, ALBUMIN CARRY SUBSTANCES IN THE
BLOOD OR LYMPH THROUGHOUT
THE BODY
STRUCTURAL ACTIN, TUBULIN, KERATIN CONSTRUCT DIFFERENT
STRUCTURES LIKE THE
CYTOSKELETON
HORMONES INSULIN, THYROXINE COORDINATE THE ACTIVITY OF
DIFFERENT SYSTEM

DEFENSE IMMUNOGLOBULINS PROTECT THE BODY FROM

FOREIGN PATHOGENS

CONTRACTILE ACTIN, MYOSIN EFFECT MUSCLE CONTRACTION

STORAGE LEGUME STORAGE PROTEINS, EGG PROVIDE NOURISHMENT IN EARLY

WHITE (ALBUMIN) DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
AND SEEDLING
Amino acids
■ Amino acids, often referred to as the
building blocks of proteins, are compounds
that play many critical roles in your
body. They're needed for vital processes
like the building of proteins and
synthesis of hormones and
neurotransmitters
Hormones
■ Are chemical-signaling molecules, usually
small proteins or steroids, secreted by
endocrine cells that act to control or
regulate specific physiological processes,
including growth, development, metabolism,
and reproduction.
Nucleic Acids
■ These are organic compound that serve as
genetic information storage molecules.
■ There are two types of nucleic acid, DNA
and RNA. Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a
double-stranded helix molecules.
■ RNA is essential for protein synthesis.
 HOW DOES OUR BODY
ABSORB NUTRIENTS FROM
THE FOOD THAT WE EAT?
Carbohydrates
■ Most of the food that we eat are natural
source of carbohydrates like grains,
fruits, and vegetables.
■ The role of glucose and glycogen.
Proteins
■ This means that we cannot do without it in
our food and in our bodies. This is
because of the nitrogen is contains and
because of the particular building blocks
that make up protein.
Nucleic acids
■ These materials like DNA and RNA are
responsible for maintaining and
reproducing the cells that make up the
body.
■ Responsible for generating the materials
needed to sustain cell life.