15 Detecting the

environment
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environment

Think about…
15.1Irritability
15.2Human eye
15.3Human ear
15.4Phototropism of plants
Recall Think about…
Concept map

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environment

Contact lenses for controlling short sight

A special contact lens has been

developed to control short
sight.

3
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Detectinginthe
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environment

Contact lenses for controlling short sight

lenses put in
before sleeping

cornea ( 角膜 )
reshaped
during sleep

4
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Detectinginthe
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environment

Contact lenses for controlling short sight

People with short sight can

see clearly the next day
even after the lenses are
removed.

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Detectinginthe
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environment

What is the cause of short sight?

6
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Detectinginthe
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environment

What is the role of the cornea in

our eyes?

7
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6 Nutrition
Detectinginthe
humans
environment 15.1 Irritability

15.1 Irritability
• organisms can
stimuli (in刺激
detect changes )
the environment
and respond to them

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

15.1 Irritability
• irritability ( 感應性 ):
ability of detecting stimuli and
giving responses

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

A Importance of irritability
• helps organisms obtain food, e.g.

butterfly detects
the smell of nectar
(stimulus)

flies to the flower

(response)

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

A Importance of irritability
• helps organisms obtain food, e.g.

shoot of plant
detects a light
source (stimulus)

grows towards the

light source
(response)
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

A Importance of irritability
• helps organisms find mates, e.g.

peahen sees the

feather display of
peacock (stimulus)

may approach the

peacock
(response) peacock peahen
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

A Importance of irritability
• helps organisms escape from danger, e.g.

rabbit hears the

sound produced
by its predators
(stimulus)

runs away quickly

(response)
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

B Detection of stimuli
consist of sensory cells ( 感覺細
胞)
• by receptors ( 感受器 )

some are concentrated to form

part of a sense organ ( 感覺器
官)
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environment 15.1 Irritability

Receptors in humans
Stimulus
Sense organ Type of receptor
detected
Eye Photoreceptor Light
( 光感受器 )

Ear Mechanoreceptor Sound

( 機械感受器 )

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

Receptors in humans
Stimulus
Sense organ Type of receptor
detected
Nose Chemoreceptor Chemicals
( 化學感受器 ) in the air

Tongue Chemoreceptor Chemicals

in food

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

Receptors in humans
Stimulus
Sense organ Type of receptor
detected
Mechanoreceptor Pressure

Skin
Thermoreceptor Temperature
( 温度感受器 ) change

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

C From stimulus to response

How do we detect stimuli and then

give responses?

18
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

Example

 Light (stimulus)
from the bus is
detected by the
photoreceptors in
the boy’s eyes.

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environment 15.1 Irritability

Example

 The photoreceptors
generate and send
nerve impulses
( 神經脈衝 ) along
the nerves ( 神經 )
to the brain
(coordinator).

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environment 15.1 Irritability

Example

 The brain
(coordinator)
interprets the
nerve impulses
and produces the
sense of sight
(sensation 感覺 ).

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environment 15.1 Irritability

Example
 The brain
(coordinator) sends
nerve impulses to
the leg muscles
(effector 效應器 ).
 The leg muscles
contract and the boy
runs towards the bus
(response).
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environment 15.1 Irritability

Example
 The brain
links receptors and (coordinator) sends
effectors so that they nerve impulses to
are well coordinated the leg muscles
(effector 效應器 ).
 The leg muscles
contract and the boy
runs towards the bus
(response).
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environment 15.1 Irritability

Major events from detecting a stimulus

to producing a response in humans
detected by
stimulus receptor
sends nerve impulses to
coordinator
• nervous system ( 神經系統 )
• endocrine system ( 內分泌系
統)
sends nerve impulses to
(if nervous system produces
effector response
is involved)
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environment 15.1 Irritability

plants also detect and respond to stimuli,

but their responses are much slower

25
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

1 Irritability is the ability of

detecting stimuli and giving
responses in organisms. It is
important for survival.

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

2 Types of receptors in humans:

Photoreceptors
:
• (in eye) detect light

27
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

2 Types of receptors in humans:

Chemoreceptors
:
• (in nose) detect chemicals
in the air
• (in tongue) detect chemicals
in food
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

2 Types of receptors in humans:

Mechanoreceptors
:
• (in ear) detect sound
• (in skin) detect pressure

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.1 Irritability

2 Types of receptors in humans:

Thermoreceptors
:
• (in skin) detect temperature
change

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environment 15.1 Irritability

stimulus
3 detected by
receptor
sends nerve impulses to
(e.g. brain) (interprets
coordinator
nerve impulses)
sends nerve impulses to
effector (e.g. muscles)
produces
response
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

15.2 Human eye

light
detected
by eye

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environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

eyebrow ( 眼眉 )
• prevents sweat from
running into the eye
eyelash ( 眼睫毛 )
• traps dust and prevents

it from entering the eye

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environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

eyelid ( 眼瞼 )
• can be closed to
protect the eye from
dirt and strong light
• spreads tears over
the eye surface
when we blink

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

tear gland ( 淚腺 )
• produces tears which
- contain sodium,
chloride and
lysozyme ( 溶菌酶 )
that can kill bacteria

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

tear gland ( 淚腺 )
• produces tears which
- keep the eye moist
and clean

36
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Detectinginthe
humans
environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

tear duct ( 淚管 )
• drains tears into the
nasal cavity

37
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

skull ( 顱骨 )

orbit ( 眼窩 )

38
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

skull orbit

eyeball
39
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Detectinginthe
humans
environment 15.2 Human eye

A Structures around the eye

eye muscles
• enable the
eyeball to
conjunctiva ( 結膜 ) rotate
(not cover the cornea)
• keeps the front part of the
eye moist and lubricated
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

3D model 15.1 Animation 15.1

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Sclera ( 鞏膜 )
• outermost layer
• tough, white

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Sclera ( 鞏膜 )
• protects inner
structures
• maintains the
shape of eyeball
• provides a surface
for attachment of
eye muscles
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Cornea ( 角膜 )
• transparent
 allows light to
pass through
• curved
 refracts and
focuses light
• no capillaries
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Choroid ( 脈絡膜 )
• middle layer
• with a black pigment
which absorbs light
 reduces reflection
of light within the
eye

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Choroid ( 脈絡膜 )
• rich in capillaries
 supply nutrients
and oxygen, and
remove wastes

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Iris ( 虹膜 )
• continuous with
the choroid
• made up of muscles

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Iris ( 虹膜 )
• with a pigment
less more
pigment pigment
e.g.

blue grey

iris
green brown
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Iris ( 虹膜 )
• controls the size
of pupil
 regulates the
amount of light
entering the eye

pupil
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Pupil ( 瞳孔 )
• an opening
that allows
light to enter
the eye

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Retina ( 視網膜 )
• innermost layer
• contains photoreceptors

(light-sensitive cells)
- rod cells ( 視桿細胞 )
- cone cells ( 視錐細胞 )

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Optic nerve ( 視神經 )
• transmits nerve
impulses generated
from photoreceptors
to the cerebrum ( 大腦 )

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B Structures of the eye

Yellow spot ( 黃點 )
• central region of retina
• high density of
cone cells
• no rod cells

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Blind spot ( 盲點 )
• where the optic nerve
leaves the eyeball
• no photoreceptors

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Lens ( 晶體 )
• transparent,
elastic and
biconvex ( 雙凸 )
• refracts and
focuses light
onto the retina

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Lens ( 晶體 )
• made up of
living cells with
no nuclei
• no capillaries

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Suspensory ligaments
( 懸韌帶 )
• hold the lens in
position
• connected to the
ciliary body

ciliary body
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Ciliary body ( 睫狀體 )
• consists of a ring of
ciliary muscles ( 睫狀
肌)
• controls the tension
of suspensory
allows light from
ligaments objects at different
 changes the distances to be focused
onto the retina
thickness of the lens 58
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

cornea
iris

ciliary body
suspensory
ligaments
lens
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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Aqueous humour
( 水狀液 )
• a watery fluid
• supplies nutrients
and oxygen to the
cornea and the lens

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Aqueous humour
( 水狀液 )
• maintains the
shape of the eyeball
• refracts light onto
the retina

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environment 15.2 Human eye

B Structures of the eye

Vitreous humour
( 玻璃狀液 )
• a jelly-like fluid
• maintains the
shape of the eyeball
• refracts light onto
the retina

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15.1
Practical 15.1

Dissection of ox eye
Procedure
1 Remove the eye muscles and fatty tissue.

fatty
tissue

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environment 15.2 Human eye

15.1
2 Identify the sclera and optic nerve.

optic nerve

sclera
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15.1
2 Cut the eye in half.

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15.1
3 Examine the front half of the eye.
Identify the cornea, iris and pupil.
Front view Back view
pupil
iris

cornea cornea
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environment 15.2 Human eye

15.1
4 Examine the lens and vitreous humour.
Note their texture.

lens vitreous
humour

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environment 15.2 Human eye

15.1
5 Examine the back half of the eye.
Locate the blind spot.

blind
spot optic
nerve
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

cornea
• allows light to
enter the eye
• refracts and
focuses light onto
the retina
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

iris
• controls the size
of the pupil so
as to regulate the
amount of light
entering the eye
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

pupil
• allows light to
enter the eye
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

lens
• refracts and
focuses light
onto the retina

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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

aqueous humour
• supplies nutrients
and oxygen to
the cornea and
the lens

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

aqueous humour
• maintains the
shape of the
eyeball
• refracts light onto
the retina
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Detectinginthe
humans
environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

suspensory
ligament
• connects the
lens to the
ciliary body
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

ciliary body
• consists of ciliary
muscles
• changes the
thickness of the
lens
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

sclera
• protects inner
structures

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

sclera
• maintains the
shape of the
eyeball

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Detectinginthe
humans
environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

sclera
• provides a
surface for
attachment of
eye muscles
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

choroid
• contains a black
pigment which
absorbs light to
reduce reflection
of light
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

choroid
• contains
capillaries which
supply nutrients
and oxygen to the
retina and sclera
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

retina
• contains
photoreceptors
to detect light

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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

yellow spot
• has a high
density of cone
cells

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

blind spot
• has no
photoreceptors

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

optic nerve
• transmits
nerve impulses
from the retina to
the cerebrum
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Structure of the human eye:

vitreous humour
• maintains the
shape of the
eyeball
• refracts light onto
the retina
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environment 15.2 Human eye

C Process of how we see

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C Process of how we see

Animation 15.2

aqueous
humour retina
cornea
lens
vitreous
humour
refract light
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environment 15.2 Human eye

C Process of how we see

 Light rays enter the eye and are

refracted and focused onto the retina.
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C Process of how we see

 A real and inverted image is formed on

the retina.
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C Process of how we see

nerve
impulse

 The photoreceptors on the retina are
stimulated by the light. They generate
nerve impulses.
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environment 15.2 Human eye

C Process of how we see

brain

optic nerve

 The photoreceptors
nerve impulses travelon the
along
retina
theare
stimulated
optic nervebytothe
thelight.
visual
They
centre
generate
nerve
( 視覺中心 impulses.
) in the cerebrum of the brain.
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C Process of how we see

brain


optic nerve

 The visual centre interprets the nerve

impulses as an upright image of the
object.
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D Detection of light by retina

light

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environment 15.2 Human eye

1 Types of photoreceptors choroid

optic nerve
blind spot

nerve fibres to
optic nerve
rod cell
layers of nerve cells
(neurones) cone cell
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

1 Types of photoreceptors
optic nerve
Rod cells and light
cone cells are
stimulated
generate
nerve
impulses rod cell

brain cone cell

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environment 15.2 Human eye

1 Types of photoreceptors

cone cells rod cells

rod cell

cone
(1500
cell
) 97
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Rod cells Cone cells

nucleus segment nucleus segment

containing containing
pigment pigment
mitochondria mitochondria

(1500
) 98
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Rod cells Cone cells

segment segment
containing containing
pigment pigment
• more numerous • less numerous
• pigment sensitive to • pigment sensitive to
light of low intensity light of high intensity
 important for vision  work best in
in dim light bright light
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Rod cells Cone cells

segment segment
containing containing
pigment pigment
• cannot detect colour • can detect colour
 responsible for  responsible for
black and white colour vision
vision

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Cone cells
• 3 types: red, green and blue

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Cone cells
100 blue cone cell most sensitive
(% of light absorbed)

80
to blue light
sensitivity

60

40

20
wavelength
400 500 600 700 (nm)

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Cone cells
100 green cone cell most sensitive
(% of light absorbed)

80
to green light
sensitivity

60

40

20
wavelength
400 500 600 700 (nm)

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Cone cells
100 red cone cell most sensitive
(% of light absorbed)

80
to red light
sensitivity

60

40

20
wavelength
400 500 600 700 (nm)

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environment 15.2 Human eye

Cone cells
• combined stimulation of different types
of cone cells
 different colours perceived

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Cone cells
Cone cells Colour
Red Green Blue perceived
+ red
+ green
+ blue
+ + yellow

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Cone cells
Cone cells Colour
Red Green Blue perceived
+ + magenta
+ + cyan
+ + + white
- - - black

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environment 15.2 Human eye

2 Distribution of photoreceptors on
retina • mainly located on the periphery
• none at the yellow spot and the
photoreceptors per mm2

blind spot
150 000
number of

rod cell
100 000

50 000

away from centre of away from

retina
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2 Distribution of photoreceptors on
retina • concentrated at the yellow spot
• only a few on the periphery
photoreceptors per mm2

150 000
number of

rod cell
100 000

50 000
cone cell

away from centre of away from

retina
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environment 15.2 Human eye

2 Distribution of photoreceptors on
retina Yellow spot
• concentrated with cone cells
photoreceptors per mm2

• no rod cells
150 000
number of

rod cell
100 000

50 000
cone cell

away from centre of away from

retina
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.2 Human eye

2 Distribution of photoreceptors on
retina Blind spot
• no rod cells
photoreceptors per mm2

and cone cells

150 000
number of

rod cell
100 000

50 000
cone cell

away from centre of away from

retina
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Blind spot

blind spot
• where the
optic nerve
leaves
the eyeball

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Blind spot
retina blind spot
no photoreceptors

no nerve impulses
sent to the brain

image can be formed

on the blind spot but
cannot be seen
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Blind spot
Let’s experience the presence of the blind
spot through an activity.

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Detectinginthe
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Blind spot
1 Hold your textbook at arm’s length and
at horizontal level with your eyes.

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Blind spot
2 Close your left eye and keep staring at
the with your right eye.
3 At the same time, slowly move the
book towards yourself.
What happens?
The disappears at
a certain distance.
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Blind spot
At a certain distance…

image formed on
image formed on another part of the
blind spot retina
 cannot see  can see
blind spot retina
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1 Light rays that enter the eye are

refracted and focused on the
retina.

118
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1 The image formed on the retina

is detected by rod cells and
cone cells
.

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1 Rod cells and cone cells send

nerve impulses along the
optic nerve to the brain.

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1 The brain interprets the nerve

impulses and gives the sensation
of sight .

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2 Rod cells Cone cells

Shape Rod -shaped Cone -shaped

Relative More / Less More / Less

abundance numerous numerous
Number of One type(s) Three type(s)
type

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2 Rod cells Cone cells

Sensitivity Sensitive to light Sensitive to light
low / high low / high
of of
intensity intensity
Vision Black and Colour vision
white
vision

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2 Rod cells Cone cells

Distribution Mainly on the Concentrated at
in retina periphery yellow spot ;
of retina; none at
none at blind spot
yellow spot
and
blind spot

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E Seeing in bright light and in

dim light
Iris
• consists of
circular muscles ( 環肌 ) and

radial muscles ( 放射肌

contract or relax)

control the size of the pupil

regulate the amount of light entering the eye

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In bright light
Animation 15.3

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In bright light

1a circular muscles contract

1b radial muscles relax
2 pupil constricts ( 縮
小) less light enters the eye
This prevents the photoreceptors in the retina
from being damaged by bright light.
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In dim light

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In dim light

1a circular muscles relax

1b radial muscles contract
2 pupil dilates ( 擴張 )
 more light enters the eye
This allows the photoreceptors to be
stimulated so that a clear image can be seen.
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In bright light In dim light

Circular Contract Relax
muscles of iris
Radial muscles Relax Contract
of iris
Pupil Constricts Dilates
Amount of light Decreases Increases
entering the eye

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In bright light In dim light

Importance Prevents Allows
damage to photoreceptors
photoreceptors to be
stimulated so
that a clear
image can be
seen

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F Seeing objects at different

distances
• the lens is elastic
action of ciliary muscles

change the thickness (or curvature) of lens

focus on objects at different distances

eye accommodation ( 視覺調
節) 132
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Focusing on near objects

Animation 15.4

side view front view

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Focusing on near objects

 Ciliary muscles
contract.

diverging
light rays from a near object
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Focusing on near objects

 Tension in suspensory ligaments 
(i.e. they become slackened).

135
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Focusing on near objects

 Lens becomes thicker
(more convex).

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Focusing on near objects

 Lens becomes thicker
(more convex).

thicker lens
refracts light more

light rays are

focused onto the
retina
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Focusing on near objects

• If we look at a near object for a long time

ciliary muscles contract for a long time

without rest

eye strains ( 眼睛疲勞 ) headache

• Signs of eye strains: tired eyes
blurred vision

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Focusing on distant objects

 Ciliary muscles
relax.

parallel
light rays from a distant object
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Focusing on distant objects

 Tension in suspensory ligaments 
(i.e. they become tightened).

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Focusing on distant objects

 Lens becomes thinner
(less convex).

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Focusing on distant objects

 Lens becomes thinner
(less convex).

thinner lens
refracts light less

light rays are

focused onto the
retina
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6 Nutrition in humans

Interpreting a graph of changes in

curvature of the lens over a period of
time
The graph on the next slide shows the changes
in curvature of the lens of a person who is
staring at a moving object in 25 seconds.

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 6 Nutrition in humans

lens remains thick (most curved)

 the person is looking at a
stationary near object

most curved
curvature of lens
(arbitrary unit)

least curved
time
0 5 10 15 20 25 (s)
144
 6 Nutrition in humans

lens becomes less convex

( in curvature)
 the object is moving away
from the person

most curved
curvature of lens
(arbitrary unit)

least curved
time
0 5 10 15 20 25 (s)
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 6 Nutrition in humans

lens becomes more

convex ( in curvature)
 the object is moving
towards the person

most curved
curvature of lens
(arbitrary unit)

least curved
time
0 5 10 15 20 25 (s)
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 6 Nutrition in humans

lens remains thin

 the person is
looking at a
stationary
distant object
most curved
curvature of lens
(arbitrary unit)

least curved
time
0 5 10 15 20 25 (s)
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A girl is watching a butterfly. The graph below

shows the changes in curvature of the lens of her
eye.
(arbitrary unit)
curvature of
lens

time
0 2 4 6 8 (s)
148
6 Nutrition in humans

a During which period(s) is the butterfly flying

towards the girl? (2 marks)
0 – 2 s and 4 – 6 s (2)
(arbitrary unit)
curvature of
lens

time
0 2 4 6 8 (s)
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b At what time is the tension in the suspensory

ligaments the greatest? (1 mark)
8 s (1) (arbitrary unit)
curvature of
lens

time
0 2 4 6 8 (s)
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1 Eye accommodation is the ability

of the eye to focus on objects at
different distances.

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2 Focusing on
near objects
Focusing on
distant objects
Ciliary Contract Relax
muscles
Suspensory Tension Tension
ligaments decreases ; increases ;
become become
slackened tightened

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2 Focusing on
near objects
Focusing on
distant objects
Lens Thicker Thinner
(more convex) (less convex)

Refraction Increases Decreases

of light

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G Eye defects
Animation 15.5

Some types of eye defects ( 眼睛毛病 ):

• short sight ( 近視 )
• long sight ( 遠視 )
• colour blindness ( 色盲 )

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1 Short sight
Vision problem

near objects distant objects

are clear are blurred
155
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1 Short sight
Cause
Lens too thick Eyeball too long

light rays
from a
distant object image formed
in front of the retina
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1 Short sight
Correction
Lens too thick Eyeball too long
light rays
diverged

concave
lens
image formed
on the retina
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2 Long sight
Vision problem

near objects distant objects

are blurred are clear
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2 Long sight
Cause
Lens too thin Eyeball too short

light rays
from a
near object image formed
behind the retina
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2 Long sight
Correction
Lens too thin Eyeball too short
light rays
converged

convex
lens
image formed
on the retina
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3 Colour blindness
Vision problem
• cannot distinguish some or all colours

161
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3 Colour blindness
Vision problem
Red-green colour
Normal vision
blindness ( 紅綠色
盲)

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3 Colour blindness
Vision problem
• most common Red-green colour
• cannot distinguish blindness ( 紅綠色
between red and 盲)
green

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3 Colour blindness
Vision problem
Total colour
Normal vision
blindness ( 全色盲 )

164
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3 Colour blindness
Vision problem
• rare Total colour
blindness ( 全色盲 )

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3 Colour blindness
Cause
• caused by the deficiency or defect of one or
more of the three cone cell types

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3 Colour blindness
Cause
• caused by Red-green colour
deficiency or defect blindness ( 紅綠色
of the red or green 盲)
cone cells, or both

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3 Colour blindness
Correction
• inherited
• cannot be cured or corrected by wearing
lenses

168
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Short sight
Vision problem:
Can only see near objects clearly
as the images of distant objects are
formed in front of the retina

169
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Short sight
Cause:
Lens too thick and/or
eyeball too long

170
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Short sight
Correction:
Wear concave lenses

171
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Long sight
Vision problem:
Can only see distant objects clearly
as the images of near objects are
formed behind the retina

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environment 15.2 Human eye

Long sight
Cause:
Lens too thin and/or
eyeball too short

173
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Long sight
Correction:
Wear convex lenses

174
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Colour blindness
Vision problem:
Cannot distinguish some or all
colours

175
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environment 15.2 Human eye

Colour blindness
Cause:
Deficiency or defect in one or more of
the three types of cone cells

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Colour blindness
Correction:
Can / Cannot be cured or corrected
by wearing lenses

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environment 15.3 Human ear

15.3 Human ear

sound

detected
by ear
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A Structures of the ear

outer ear middle ear inner ear 3D model 15.2

3 regions

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1 Outer ear

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1 Outer ear

Pinna ( 耳廓 )
• cartilage covered
by skin
• collects sound
waves

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1 Outer ear

Auditory canal
( 聽道 )
• directs sound
waves to the
eardrum

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1 Outer ear

Auditory canal
( 聽道 )
• produces wax which
lubricates the canal
and traps dirt and
bacteria
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1 Outer ear

Eardrum ( 鼓膜 )
• a thin and elastic
membrane
• converts
sound waves into
vibrations

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2 Middle ear

185
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2 Middle ear

Ear bones ( 聽小
骨)

1 mm
smallest bones
in our body
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2 Middle ear

Ear bones ( 聽小骨 )

• amplify and transmit
vibrations from
the eardrum to
the oval window

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2 Middle ear

Oval window ( 卵圓窗 )

• transmits vibrations
from the ear bones to
the inner ear

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2 Middle ear

Round window ( 圓
窗)
• releases the fluid
pressure in the
cochlea into the air
in the middle ear

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2 Middle ear
When we are on a plane
that is taking off…

air pressure
outside  quickly
when we go higher

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2 Middle ear

lower pressure higher pressure

outside in middle ear
eardrum bulges outwards
 cannot vibrate freely
 cannot hear clearly
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2 Middle ear
Eustachian tube
( 耳咽管 )
• equalizes the air
pressure on either
side of the eardrum

to pharynx
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3 Inner ear

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3 Inner ear
Auditory nerve
( 聽神經 )
• transmits nerve
impulses to the
auditory centre in
the brain

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3 Inner ear

Cochlea ( 耳蝸 )
• for hearing
• coiled tube with
3 parallel canals
separated by
membranes

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3 Inner ear

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3 Inner ear

central canal filled

with endolymph
( 內淋巴 )
auditory
nerve
upper and lower canals filled with
perilymph ( 外淋巴 )
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3 Inner ear

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3 Inner ear

membrane
hair
sensory hair cell
( 感覺毛細胞 )

nerve fibres
of hair cells form auditory nerve
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3 Inner ear
When endolymph vibrates…

 Hairs are bent.

 Sensory hair cells
are stimulated
and generate nerve
impulses.

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environment 15.3 Human ear

3 Inner ear auditory

auditory nerve
centre

 Nerve impulses travel to the

brain for interpretation.
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3 Inner ear
hairs of healthy hairs of damaged
sensory hair sensory hair
cells cells
repeated
exposure
to loud
(×2000) sound (×2000)

hearing loss
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environment 15.3 Human ear

3 Inner ear
Semicircular
canals ( 半規管 )
• not involved in
hearing

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3 Inner ear
Semicircular
canals ( 半規管 ) when
stimulated send nerve
• contain sensory impulses to
hair cells to detect the brain
the directions of
head movements
coordinates muscles
to maintain body
balance
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

pinna
• collects sound
waves in the air

205
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

auditory canal
• directs sound
waves to the
eardrum

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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

eardrum
• converts sound
waves to sound
vibrations
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

ear bones
• amplify and transmit vibrations from
the eardrum to the oval window
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

oval window
• transmits vibrations from the
ear bones to the inner ear
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Structure of the human ear:

Eustachian tube
• equalizes air
pressure on both
sides of the
eardrum
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

semicircular canals
• contain sensory
hair cells which
detect directions of
head movements
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

semicircular canals
• help maintain body
balance

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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

cochlea
• contains sensory
hair cells which
detect vibrations
and send nerve
impulses to the
brain
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Structure of the human ear:

auditory nerve
• transmits nerve
impulses from
the cochlea to
the brain for
interpretation
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environment 15.3 Human ear

Structure of the human ear:

round window
• releases fluid pressure to
the air in the middle ear
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B Process of how we hear

Animation 15.6

auditory canal

pinna eardrum
 Sound waves collected by the pinna
are directed to the eardrum.
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B Process of how we hear

eardrum
 Sound waves cause the eardrum to
vibrate.
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B Process of how we hear

oval window


ear bones
 The ear bones amplify and transmit
the vibrations to the oval window.
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B Process of how we hear

oval window


cochlea

perilymph
 The oval window vibrates, causing the
perilymph in the cochlea to vibrate.
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B Process of how we hear

 cochlea

perilymph endolymph
 Vibrations are transmitted to the
endolymph of the cochlea.
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B Process of how we hear

 sensory
hair cell
 The sensory hair cells in the central
canal are stimulated. They generate
nerve impulses.
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B Process of how we hear

auditory nerve nerve
impulse
to the
auditory
 centre in
the brain

sensation
of hearing
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B Process of how we hear

round window
 Vibrations are transmitted to the round
window to release the fluid pressure into
the air in the middle ear.
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The pinna collects sound waves

and directs them along the auditory
canal to the eardrum.

224
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Sound waves are converted to

vibrations by the eardrum.

225
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The ear bones amplify and transmit

the vibrations to the oval window.

226
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The oval window vibrates, causing

the fluids in the cochlea vibrate
to .

227
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Sensory hair cells in the cochlea

are stimulated and they send
nerve impulses along the auditory
nerve to the brain .

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The brain interprets the nerve

impulses and gives the sensation of
hearing .

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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

15.4 Phototropism of plants

What do
h t
l ig you notice
about the
shoots of
this plant?
They grow
towards
light.
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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

15.4 Phototropism of plants

• like animals, plants can also detect
a number of stimuli (e.g. light) and
respond to them
• slower responses
• involve growth of certain parts of
the body

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15.4 Phototropism of plants

• directional growth movement of

a part of a plant in response to a
unilateral stimulus ( 單側刺激 )
tropism ( 向性 )

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A Responses of plants to
unilateral light
• directional growth movement of
a part of a plant in response to
unilateral light
phototropism ( 向光
性)

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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

A Responses of plants to
unilateral light
• shoots and roots respond differently to
unilateral light

unilateral light

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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

A Responses of plants to
unilateral light
Shoot
• grows towards light
• positively phototropic
enables leaves to obtain
the maximum amount of
light for photosynthesis

235
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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

A Responses of plants to
unilateral light
Root
• grows away from light
• negatively phototropic
enables roots to anchor
to the soil for support

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15.2
Investigation of the phototropic responses
of shoots and roots
Procedure
1 Set up the apparatus as shown.

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15.2
1 light-proof boxes seedling

light light
culture
solution
stand clinostat
( 旋轉
set-up A set-up B 器)
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15.2
1

light light

turn
on the
set-up A set-up B clinostat
239
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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

15.2
2 Observe and record any differences in
the way the seedlings have grown in
both set-ups after 2 days.

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15.2
Results and discussion
What do you observe in set-up A?
The shoots of the seedlings grow towards
the light (positively phototropic) while the
roots grow away from the light (negatively
phototropic).

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15.2
Results and discussion
What do you observe in set-up B?
Set-up B is a control in which the clinostat
eliminates the effect of unilateral light.
In this set-up, the shoots grow vertically
upwards and the roots grow vertically
downwards.

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B Early studies on phototropism

• coleoptiles ( 胚芽鞘 )
are commonly used in
the investigations of
phototropism

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B Early studies on phototropism

coleoptile coleoptile
• sheath covering and first leaf
inside
protecting the young leaf
in seedling of grass
• bursts open when the
first leaf develops

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B Early studies on phototropism

coleoptiles are commonly coleoptile
used because: first leaf
• their response to light is inside

easy to observe
• they grow rapidly
• they are small and easy
to handle

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Charles Boysen- Paal Went

Darwin Jensen (1919) (1926
(1880) (1913) )

• scientists built their work upon earlier

findings of others
Simulation 15.1

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Charles Darwin’s investigation (1880)

Aim:
To study the part of the coleoptile that
detects unilateral light

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Charles Darwin’s investigation (1880)

intact decapitated coleoptile
coleoptile
opaque cap

opaque collar

A B C D
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Charles Darwin’s investigation (1880)

unilateral light

A B C D A B C D
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Charles Darwin’s investigation (1880)

• The results show that

unilateral light
the tip is necessary
for growth.

A B C D A B C D
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Charles Darwin’s investigation (1880)

• The results show that

unilateral light
the tip is responsible
for detecting
unilateral light.

A B C D A B C D
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

Aim:
To study the nature of signal transmission
involved in phototropism

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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

intact agar block (chemicals can
coleoptile pass through)
tip placed on
agar block
mica plate
(chemicals cannot
pass through)

A B C D
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

unilateral light

A B C D A B C D
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

• A substance is
unilateral light
produced in the tip
and it is chemical in
nature.

agar mica
A B
block C D
plate A B C D
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

• A substance is
unilateral light
produced in the tip
and it is chemical in
nature.

×
A B C D A B C D
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

• The chemical is
unilateral light
transmitted to the
lower part of the
coleoptile where it
causes bending to
occur.

A B C D A B C D
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

mica plates

A B
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

unilateral light

A B A B
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Boysen-Jensen’s investigation (1913)

• The chemical
unilateral light
produced in the tip
can pass down the
shaded side of the
coleoptile, causing
bending towards the
illuminated side.
A B A B
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Paal’s investigation (1919)

Aim:
To study how the chemical produced in the
tip of a coleoptile works

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Paal’s investigation (1919)

tip put on left tip put on right

side of cut end side of cut end

A B
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Paal’s investigation (1919)

in darkness

A B A B
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Paal’s investigation (1919)

• The side with the

displaced tip
receives a higher
concentration of the
chemical

grows more rapidly,

causing
A bending
B A B
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Went’s investigation (1926)

Aim:
To study the effect of unilateral light on
the distribution of the chemical in the tip
of a coleoptile

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Went’s investigation (1926)

in darkness
tip removed and placed on
an agar block for some time

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Went’s investigation (1926)

in darkness
the agar block is
placed on the cut end

A
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Went’s investigation (1926)

in darkness

A A
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Went’s investigation (1926)

in darkness

mica plate
X Y

agar blocks

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Went’s investigation (1926)

in darkness

unilateral light

X Y

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Went’s investigation (1926)

in darkness
Y
X

X Y

B B
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Went’s investigation (1926)

• While the chemical in darkness

from the tip diffuses
into the agar block,
light causes an
uneven distribution
unilateral light
of the chemical.
X Y

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Went’s investigation (1926)

• The shaded side

has a higher Y
concentration of the X
chemical
 grows more
rapidly
 the shoot bends
towards light A B
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C Auxins
• Went identified the chemical
produced in the tip of the
coleoptile that causes
phototropism. He named it:
auxin ( 生長
素)

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1 Nature of auxins
• a group of plant growth substances
• the most common naturally occurring
auxin is indoleacetic acid (IAA)

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1 Nature of auxins
produced in small
amounts in apical
meristem travel down
region of promote cell
elongation elongation

coleoptile elongating cell

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2 Effect of light on the distribution

of auxins
Hypotheses:
i Light destroys auxins.
ii Light causes auxins to move away from
the illuminated side to the shaded side.

Which hypothesis is valid?

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Experiment 1
decapitated
coleoptile
coleoptile tip

agar agar
block A A block B B
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Experiment 1
uniform light in darkness

A B
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Experiment 1
in darkness in darkness

24° 24°

A B
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Experiment 1

• Both coleoptiles bend

to the same degree
amount of auxins in
agar blocks are the 24°
same regardless of
light or dark
condition
A B
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Experiment 1

• Light does not

destroy auxins.

24°

A B
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Experiment 2

coleoptile tip

L R L R

mica plate mica plate

C D E F
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Experiment 2
unilateral light unilateral light

L R L R

C D E F
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Experiment 2
in darkness in darkness

L R L R

L R L R

C D E F
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Experiment 2
in darkness in darkness

L R L R
12
24 °
° 31
°
C D E F
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Experiment 2

• Mica plate stops

lateral transport of
auxins.
• Light does not
destroy auxins. 24° 24° 12° 31°

C D E F
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Experiment 2

• Coleoptiles C and D
bend to the same
degree
agar blocks
L and R contain 24° 24° 12° 31°
the same amount
of auxins
C D E F
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Experiment 2

• Coleoptile F bends
the most
auxins move
from the
illuminated side to 24° 24° 12° 31°
the shaded side

C D E F
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The diagram below shows a set-up prepared by a

student to study the effect of unilateral light on the
growth of oat coleoptiles.

P
in a
unilateral Q rotating agar mica
light
clinostat block plates
R

coleoptile 1 2 3 4 5
result bent growth bent growth (not
after towards without towards without recorded)
two days the left bending the left bending
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a In which region of coleoptile 1 (P, Q or R) did

bending occur? (1 mark)

P
in a
unilateral Q rotating agar mica
light
clinostat block plates
R

coleoptile 1 2 3 4 5
result bent growth bent growth (not
after towards without towards without recorded)
two days the left bending the left bending
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Suggested answer
a Region Q (1)

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b i Comparing results of which two of the

coleoptiles (1 to 5) would allow drawing a
conclusion that oat coleoptiles show positive
phototropism? (1 mark)
P
in a
unilateral Q rotating agar mica
light
clinostat block plates
R

coleoptile 1 2 3 4 5
result bent growth bent growth (not
after towards without towards without recorded)
two days the left bending the left bending
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6 Nutrition in humans

Suggested answer
b i Coleoptiles 1 and 2 (1)

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b ii Which one of the coleoptiles in your answer

to i serves as a control? Explain your answer.
(2 marks)

P
in a
unilateral Q rotating agar mica
light
clinostat block plates
R

coleoptile 1 2 3 4 5
result bent growth bent growth (not
after towards without towards without recorded)
two days the left bending the left bending
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Suggested answer
b ii Coleoptile 2 (1)
It is identical to coleoptile 1 except that the
factor under investigation (i.e. unilateral light) is
removed by the rotating clinostat. (1)

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Setting up controls in phototropism

experiments
In an experiment, an experimental set-up and
a control are often prepared.

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Setting up controls in phototropism

experiments
experimental
set-up control • identical to the
experimental set-up
except that the factor
under investigation
is absent
• ensures the result of
the experiment is due
to the factor under
coleoptile 1 2
investigation only
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Setting up controls in phototropism

experiments
For example:
experimental
set-up control

unilateral in a
light rotating
clinostat
How should the
control be set
factor under up?
investigation

coleoptile 1 2

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Setting up controls in phototropism

experiments
For example:
experimental
set-up control

• identical to the
unilateral in a
light rotating experimental set-up
clinostat the effect
except that ________
_________________
of unilateral light
factor under
is absent (being
investigation
removed by the rotating
coleoptile 1 2
clinostat)

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Setting up controls in phototropism

experiments
For example:
experimental
set-up control

• ensures the bending in

unilateral in a
light rotating coleoptile 1 is due to the
clinostat effect of
unilateral light
__________________
factor under
but not others
investigation

coleoptile 1 2

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A student designed an experiment to test the

hypothesis that auxins are the growth-promoting
substances in oat coleoptiles. The experimental
set-up is shown below.
agar block
with auxins

decapitated
coleoptile

experimental
set-up

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Draw a diagram to show how the control of this

experiment should be set up. (3 marks)

Correct use of an
agar block agar block agar block
with auxins without auxins
without auxins (1)
decapitated
coleoptile
decapitated
coleoptile
Correct labels (1)
Correct drawing (1)
experimental control
set-up

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c What conclusion can be drawn from the results of

coleoptiles 1, 3 and 4? (1 mark)

P
in a
unilateral Q rotating agar mica
light
clinostat block plates
R

coleoptile 1 2 3 4 5
result bent growth bent growth (not
after towards without towards without recorded)
two days the left bending the left bending
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6 Nutrition in humans

Suggested answer
c There may be a growth-promoting substance
passing from the tip to the growing region of the
coleoptile. (1)

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d What would be the growth response of

coleoptile 5? Explain your answer using your
knowledge about phototropism. (4 marks)

P
in a
unilateral Q rotating agar mica
light
clinostat block plates
R

coleoptile 1 2 3 4 5
result bent growth bent growth (not
after towards without towards without recorded)
two days the left bending the left bending
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Suggested answer
d Coleoptile 5 would grow vertically upwards. (1)
As the mica plate prevents the lateral transport of
auxins, (1)
the auxins in the region of elongation of the
coleoptile is distributed evenly. (1)
As a result, the illuminated side and the shaded
side of the coleoptile grew at the same rate and no
bending occurred. (1)
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3 Effect of auxin concentration on

the growth of shoots and roots
Effects of auxins on growth vary with:
• concentration of auxins
• parts of the plant concerned
Animation 15.7

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% stimulation
200
150
growth response

100
50
0
% inhibition

shoots
50 roots
100
10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104
concentration of auxins (ppm)
309
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% stimulation
high200
auxin
concentrations
150
growth response

promote shoot
100 but inhibit
growth
root50growth
0
% inhibition

shoots
50 roots
100
10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104
concentration of auxins (ppm)
310
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% stimulation
200 low auxin
150
concentrations
growth response

promote root
100 growth
50
0
% inhibition

shoots
50 roots
100
10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104
concentration of auxins (ppm)
311
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Detectinginthe
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% stimulation
200 but have little effect
150
on shoot growth
growth response

100
50
0
% inhibition

shoots
50 roots
100
10-6 10-4 10-2 1 102 104
concentration of auxins (ppm)
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D Mechanism of phototropism

313
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light from all directions

1

shoot

auxins

root

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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

light from all directions

2 light from all directions

auxins are
distributed
evenly

315
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

light from all directions

3
shoot grows
straight upwards

root grows
straight
downwards

316
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Detectinginthe
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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

unilateral light
1

shoot

auxins

root

317
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Detectinginthe
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unilateral light
2

unilateral
auxins move from light
illuminated side
to shaded side

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unilateral light
3 in shoot, high auxin concentration
on shaded side
promotes growth cells on
(cell elongation) shaded
side
shoot bends elongate
towards light more

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unilateral light
3 in root, high auxin concentration
on shaded side
inhibits growth
(cell elongation)
cells on
shaded side
root bends away
elongate less
from light

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1 Phototropism is the directional

growth movement of a part of a
plant in response to unilateral
light .

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2 Shoots: grow towards light

(i.e. positively phototropic)
Significance: enables leaves to
reach a position where they can
obtain the maximum amount of
light for photosynthesis
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2 Roots: grow away from light

(i.e. negatively phototropic)
Significance: enables roots to
anchor to the soil for support

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3 Auxins are produced at

shoot tips and root tips .

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Detectinginthe
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3 Auxins move to the region of

elongation in shoots and roots
and affect growth there.

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4 Unilateral light causes auxins to

move from the illuminated side
to the shaded side of the shoot
and that of the root.

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4 This results in a higher

concentration of auxins on the
shaded side of the shoot and
that of the root.

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4 The high auxin concentration

promotes shoot growth but
inhibits root growth.

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environment 15.4 Phototropism of plants

4 As a result, the shoot grows

faster on the shaded side and it
bends towards the light. The
root grows slower on the shaded
side and it bends
away from the light.
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environment

1 What is the cause of short sight?

Short sight is caused by the lens being
too thick or the eyeball being too long,
or both.

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environment

2 What is the role of the cornea in our eyes?

The cornea helps refract and focus light
onto the retina.

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environment

Stimuli
examples

light sound
in humans is in plants is in humans is
detected by detected by detected by

eye shoot tip ear

& root tip
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eye
contains
rod cells & cone cells
send nerve impulses to
visual centre in brain
gives sensation of
sight
333
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Detectinginthe
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environment

eye

has the ability of

controlling the
eye
amount of light
accommodation
entering it

334
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Detectinginthe
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environment

shoot tip & root tip

produce
auxins
under unilateral light show
uneven distribution
results in
phototropism
335
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Detectinginthe
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environment

ear
contains
sensory hair cells
send nerve impulses to
auditory centre in brain
gives sensation of
hearing
336