Sma3013 Linear Algebra: SEMESTER 1 2020/2021

SMA3013 LINEAR
ALGEBRA
SEMESTER 1 2020/2021
CHAPTER 1
MATRICES
Chapter 1: Matrices
• 1.1 Matrix notation & terminology
• 1.2 Types of matrices
• 1.3 Operations with matrices
• 1.4 Properties of matrix operations
• 1.5 Elementary row operation
• 1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row Echelon
Form (RREF)
• 1.7 The determinant
• 1.8 Inverse
• 1.9 Elementary matrices
1.1 Matrix Notation & Terminalogy
Definition (Matrix):
An m x n matrix is an array of numbers with m rows
and n columns.
It is standard mathematical convention to represent matrices in any

one of the following:
1.An uppercase letter such as

A, B, or C
2.A representative elements/entries enclosed in brackets, such as
[aij], [bij], or [cij]
1.1 Matrix Notation & Terminalogy
3. A rectangular array of numbers
,are called entries/elements of a matrix.
Note:
The entries – taken from R, C, Z etc
Example:
1.2 Types of Matrices
1. row matrix- a matrix

Example:
2. column matrix – an matrix
Example :
3. Square matrix – no. of rows = no. of column

Example:
 3 1
C 
 4 5 
1.2 Types of Matrices (cont.)
4. diagonal entries – entries on the main diagonal of a square
matrix; .
diagonal matrix – a matrix in which the entries outside the
main diagonal are all zero.
Example : 8 0 0 
D  0 6 0 
0 0 3
5. Identity matrix – a square matrix in which the main

diagonal are 1 and others are zero.
Example : 1 0 0 
E  0 1 0 
0 0 1 
6. Scalar matrix – a diagonal matrix whose the

entries on the main diagonal are equal.
Example:
Definition (Equality of Matrices)

Two matrices A = [ aij ] and B = [bij] are equal if they have the
same size (m x n) and
aij = bij for 1  i  m and 1  j  n
Examples:
Consider the four matrices
2 5 0  3 1
B  C 
 1 4 1   4 5 
-Matrices B & C are not equal because they are of different sizes.
-Matrices D & E are equal if and only if x = 5 and y = 1.
1.3 Operations with Matrices
1.3.1 Matrix Addition
Definition (Matrix Addition)

If A = [aij ] and B = [bij] are matrices of size m x n, then their
sum is the matrix given by
A + B = [aij + bij ].
The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undefined.

Examples
 2 5 0 6 2 3 
Let B   1 4 1  and K   1 5 2 .
   
Then,
1.3 Operations with Matrices (cont.)
1.3.2 Scalar Multiplication
Definition (Scalar Multiplication)

If A = [aij ] is a m x n matrix and c is a scalar, then the scalar
multiple of A by c is the matrix given by
cA = [caij].
Examples
2 5 0
Let B    and c = 5 .

 1 4 1 
Then, .
Note (Matrix Subtraction):

• – A can be used to represent the scalar product (– 1)A .
• If A and B are of the same size, A – B represent the sum of A
and (– 1)B . That is,
A – B = A + (– 1)B
Examples
Let B   2 5 0  , K  6 2 3  and c = 5 .
 1 5 2 
 1 4 1  
Then,
.
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication
Definition (Matrix Multiplication)

If A = [aij ] is an m x n matrix and B = [bij] is a matrix of size n x p,
then the product AB is an m x p matrix given by
A B = [cij]
where
- to find the entry in the ith row and the jth column of AB, multiply
the entries in the ith row of A by the corresponding entries in the jth
column of B and then add the results.
- the product AB is defined if the size of column A = the size of row B.
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication (cont.)
Example
Find the product AB where and .
Solution
A has size and B has size , so ABhas size .
to find , multiply corresponding entries in the 1st row of A and
the 1st column of B, and then add the results. That is
1.3.3 Matrix Multiplication (cont.)
Similarly, to find , multiply corresponding entries in the 1 st row of A the
2nd column of B, and then add the results. That is
Continuing this pattern produced the following results.
Thus,
.
* Can we find the product BA?
1.3.4 Matrix Power
If A is a square matrix and r , s are nonnegative integers, then
Example:
2.
1.3.5 The Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of an m  n matrix A is the n  m matrix AT obtained
by interchanging the rows and columns of A. That is, the i th column
of AT is the i th row of A for all i.
Example.
Find the transpose of each matrix.
2 5 0  3 1
B  C 
 1 4 1   4 5
Answer:
Note:
A square matrix A is symmetric if and only if
Examples
1 3 2
 1 2
A   3 5 0  B 
 1 3 
 2 0 4 
Thus, A is symmetric but B is not symmetric.

Exercises:
1 2 
1. Let  3 0   4 2 1   
A   , B    , C   3 4 
 1 5  0 2 3
5 6 
 
 0 3   1
D   , E  
 4 2 
 , F   
 2 1  2 
Compute the indicated matrices(if possible).
i.A + 2D
ii.C – D
iii.D + BC
iv.BTCT – (CB)T
2. Let  2 4 2 
1 0 3   
A   & B   1 0 0 
 2 1 2   1 1 1
 
Find (i) c21 (ii) c13 , where C = AB.
3. Let
(a)Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BT B.

(b) Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BBT.
4. Solve for x, y and z in the matrix equation

x y  y z 4 x 
4  2 2 
z 1 x 1  5  x 
5. Solve the equation for X, given that :
1 2   1 0 
A   a nd B   
 3 4   1 1 
(i)X – 2A + 3B = 0
(ii)2(A + 2B) = 3X
6. Consider .
i. Find
ii. Determine whether is symmetric.
Exercise (Answer):
20 2 2 
 
1.
 3 6  3. (a) (i) 20 (ii) 2 B T B   2 10 3 
i.    2 3 1
  5 7  (b) (i) 17 (ii) 5  
17 5 
BB T   
ii. Not pos s ible  5 14 
3 3 4. x = 3 ; y = 2 ; z = 1
iii.  
19 27   2 4
5 4  3 3 
0 0 0 5. ( i) X    ( ii) X  
  3 5   10 4 
iv. 0 0 0  3 
0 0 0 

6. i. .
2.(i) c21 = -3
ii. is symmetric.
(ii)c13 = -1
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations
1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication
Theorem:
Let A, B and C be matrices of the same size and let c and d be scalars. Then,
a. A+B = B+A (Commutative property of addition)
b. (A+B)+C = A+(B+C) (Associative property of addition)
c. c(A+B) = cA + cB (Distributive property)
d. (c+d)A = cA + dA (Distributive property)
e. c(dA) = (cd)A (Associative property of multiplication)
f. 1A = A (Multiplicative identity)
1.4 Properties of Matrix Operations(cont.)
Note:
 Generally, if A1, A2, … , Ak are matrices of the same size and
c1, c2, …, ck are scalars,
we may form the linear combination:
c1 A1  c2 A2  ...  ck Ak
where
c1, c2, …, ck are called as the coefficients of the linear
combination.
Example :
Let
Determine whether A+B is commutative .

Solution
1 2   4 1  5 1
AB       
 2 1 1 2  3 1 
 4 1  1 2  5 1
BA    2 1  3 1 
 1 2     
Thus, A+B=B+A. Therefore, A+B is commutative.

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Theorem:
Let A, B and C be matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix products are
defined) and c is a scalar, the following properties are true.
a. (AB)C= A(BC) (Associative property of multiplication)
b. A(B+C) = AB + AC (Distributive property)
c. (A+B)C = AC + BC (Distributive property)
d. C(AB) = (cA)B = A(cB)
Note: Multiplication is not commutative. Therefore, it is not necessary AB = BA.

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Example :
Let
Show that the matrix product is not commutative (AB  BA)
Solution:
Then, AB  BA.

Example :
Let
Determine whether the matrix product is associative.

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices

Definition (Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and Omn is the m x n matrix consisting entirely of
zeros, then,
A + Omn = A.
The matrix Omn is called a zero matrix (additive identity for the set of
all m x n matrices).
Example :
The additive identity for the set of all 2x3 matrices.
1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

Theorem (Properties of Zero Matrix)
If A is an mxn matrix and c is a scalar, then, the following properties are
true
1.A + Omn = A.
2.A + (-A) = Omn
3.If cA = Omn then c = 0 or A = Omn
1.4.4 Properties of Transposes

Theorem (Properties of Transposes)
If A and B are matrices (with sizes such that the given matrix operations
are defined) and c is a scalar, then the following properties are true.
1.(AT)T = A
2.(A + B)T = AT + BT
3.If (cA)T = c(AT)
4.(AB)T = BTAT
Theorem
a. If A is a square matrix, then A + AT is a symmetric matrix.
b. For any matrix A, AAT and ATA are symmetric matrices.
Proof (a):
(A + AT)T = AT + (AT)T (by property of transpose (no. 2))
= AT + A (by property of transpose (no. 1))
= A + AT. (commutativity of matrix add.)
Then,
A + AT is symmetric . 
Proof (b):
(AAT)T = (AT)T AT (by property of transpose (no. 4))
= A AT (by property of transpose (n0. 1))
Then,
A AT is symmetric . 
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (ERO)
Note:
ERO – a procedure (an allowable operations) to reduce any matrix to a
matrix in row echelon form (ref) or reduced row echelon form
(rref).
- can be performed on a system of linear equations to transform it
into an equivalent system.
Definition (Elementary Row Operations)

The following elementary row operations can be performed on a matrix:
1. Interchange two rows.
2. Multiply a row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of a row to another row.
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (ERO)
Notations for the three elementary row operations:

1. Ri  Rj means the interchange rows i and j.
2. kRi means multiply row i by a nonzero constant k.
3. Ri + kRj means add k times of row j to row i (and replace row i
with the result).
The process of applying elementary row operations to bring a matrix

into ref or rref is called row reduction.
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (cont.)
Example.
a. Interchange the first and second row.

Original matrix notation New row equivalent matrix
 0 2 4   3 5 1
R1  R2
 3 5 1 
  0 2 4 
   
12 4 2  12 4 2 
b. Multiply the third row by ½ .

 3 5 1 1 3 5 1 
 0 2 4  R3  0 2 4 
  
 2
 
12 4 2   6 2 1 
1.5 Elementary Row Operations (cont.)
c. Add -2 times the first row to the third row to produce a new third row.
3 5 1  3 5 1
 0 2 4  R3 ( 2 )R1  0 2 4 
    
 6 2 1  0 12 1
1.6 Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row
Echelon Form (RREF)
Definition. (Row Echelon Form (REF))
A matrix is in row echelon form if it satisfies the following properties:
1. Any rows consisting entirely of zeros are at the bottom.
2. The first nonzero entry (called the leading entry/ pivot ) of a
nonzero row is always to the right of any leading entries of the row
above it.
Example.
The following matrices are in row echelon form.
2 4 1  1 0 1 1 1 2 1  0 2 0 1 1 3 
 0 1 2   0 1 5 0 0 1 3  0 0 1 1 2 2 
      
 0 0 0   0 0 1 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 0 4 0
 
0 0 0 0 0 5
Echelon Form (RREF)
Strategy:
Work column by column,
Example from left to right and from
Reduce the following matrix to row echelon form. top to bottom to create a
leading entry in a column
1 1 1  and then use it to create
2 3 1  zeros below it.
  - Use the 2nd ERO to make
1 1 2 
leading entry a 1 (not
strictly necessary)
Solution
1 1 1  1 1 1  1 1 1 
 2 3 1   R2  ( 2) R1
  0 1 1 
R3  ( 1) R1
  0 1 1
     
 1 1 2 1 1 2   0 2 3
1 1 1 
R3  2 R2
 0 1 1
  REF
0 0 5
Echelon Form (RREF)
Remarks:
 The row echelon form (ref) of a matrix is not unique.
 The leading entry in each row is used to create the zeros
below it.
 The pivots are not necessarily the entries that are originally in the
positions eventually occupied by the leading entries.
 Once we have pivoted and introduced zeros below the leading
entry in a column, that column does not change. (The row echelon
form emerges from left to right, top to bottom).
Echelon Form (RREF)
Definition (Row Equivalent)
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if there is a sequence of

elementary row operations that converts A and B.
Example
1 1 1  1 1 1 
2 3 1  0 1 1
  and  
1 1 2  0 0 5
are row equivalent.

Theorem
Matrices A and B are row equivalent if and only if they can be reduced to
the same row echelon form.
Echelon Form (RREF)
Definition. (Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF) )
A matrix is in reduced row echelon form (rref) if it satisfies the following
properties:
1. It is in row echelon form
2. The leading entry in each nonzero row is a 1 (called leading 1)
3. Each column containing a leading 1 has zeros everywhere else.
Example.
The following matrices are in reduced row echelon form (rref).
Note:
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 3 0
0 i. ref not necessary
0 1 0  0 1 5  0 0 1 0  rref
  
0 0 1  0 0 0  0 0 0 1  ii. Not ref →not rref
iii. rref→ref
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO , REF and RREF):
1. Determine whether the matrix is in REF or RREF or neither.
1 0 0 0 2 0 1 3
  0 1 0 0  
( i) 0 1 1 2  ( ii)   ( iii) 0 1 1 4 
0 0 0 0  1 0 2 1
0 0 0 1 
 
1 0 2 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
     
( iv ) 0 1 3 4  ( v ) 0 0 0 1 0  ( vi) 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0  0 0 0 2 0  0 0 0 0 
  
Echelon Form (RREF)
2. Reduce the following matrices into REF.
0 2 3   1 1 1 2 
1 2 1    
( i)   ( ii)  2 3 1  ( iii)  2 2 1 3 
2 3 1
 1 1 2   1 1 1 0 
   
3. Show that the given matrices are row equivalent by showing these two
matrices can be reduced to the same REF.
 2 0 1 3 1 1
   
A 1 1 0 B  3 5 1 
 1 1 1  2 2 0 
   
Echelon Form (RREF)
4. Reduce the following matrices into RREF.

3 5 3 2 1  2 4 7 
     
( i) 5 2  ( ii )  2 1 1 ( iii )  3 6 10 
2 4  4 3 1 1 2 3 
  
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO, REF, RREF) (Answer):
1. (i) RREF (ii) neither (iii) REF but not RREF (iv) REF but not RREF
(v) neither (vi) REF and RREF

2.
3. Hint: Reduce both matrices until you get the following REF
 1
1 0  2 
 
0 1 1 
 2 
 
0 0 0 
 
Echelon Form (RREF)
Exercises (ERO, REF, RREF) (Answer):
4. (i) (ii) (iii)

1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix
Every square matrix can be associated with a real number
called its determinant.
Definition ( Determinant of a 2x2 matrix)

The determinant of the matrix is given by .
Example
Compute the determinant of
𝐴=
[ 2
1
−3
2 ]
| 𝐴|=2 ( 2 ) − 1 ( − 3 ) =4 +3=7
To define the determinant of a square matrix of order higher than
2, it is convenient to use minors and cofactors.
Minors and Cofactors of a Square Matrix
If A is a square matrix, then the minor Mij of the entry aij , is the
determinant of the matrix obtained by deleting the ith row and jth
column of A. The cofactor Cij of the entry aij is
Cij = (-1)i + j Mij
For example, if A is a 3x3 matrix,

 a11 a12 a13 
A   a21 a22 a23 
 a31 a32 a33 
then the minors and cofactors of and are as follows.

Minor of : Delete row 2 and column 1
|
𝑀 21 =
𝑎 12
𝑎3 2 |
𝑎1 3
𝑎 33
= 𝑎12 𝑎33 − 𝑎 3 2 𝑎1 3
Cofactor of
Minor of : Delete row 2 and column 2
𝑀 22 =
|𝑎1 1
𝑎 31
𝑎1 3
𝑎 33 |
=𝑎 11 𝑎 33 − 𝑎 31 𝑎 1 3
Cofactor of
As you can see, the minors and cofactors of a matrix can differ
only sign. To obtain the cofactors of a matrix, 1st find the minors
and then apply the checkerboard pattern of +’s and –’s.
Note:
The odd positions(i+j is odd) have negative signs, and even
positions(i+j is even) have positive signs.
Sign Pattern for Cofactors:

   
   
 
   
3 x3  
   
4 x4
Example:
Find all the minors and cofactors of
[ ]
0 2 1
𝐴= 3 −1 2
4 0 1
[ ]
0 2 1
2 =−1 0
[ ]
2 1
3
4
−1
0 1
11
0|
2 𝑀 = − 1
1 | 3 −1
|
2 𝑀 12 = 3
4 |
2 =− 5
1
4 0 1
[ ] [ ]
0 2 1
0 2 1
3
4
−1
0
2 𝑀 = 2
1
21
0 | |
1
1
=2 3
4
−1
0 1
|
2 𝑀 22 = 0
4 |
1 =− 4
1
[ ] [ ]
0 2 1 0 2 1
3
4
−1
0 1
|
2 𝑀 31= 2
−1 2 |
1 =5
3
4
−1
0
2 𝑀 = 0
1
32
3 | 12|=− 3
[ ]
0 2 1
3
4
−1
0
2 𝑀 = 3
1
13
4 | 0 |
−1 = 4
[ ]
0 2 1
3
4
−1
0
2 𝑀 = 0
1
23
4 | |
2
0
=−8
[ ]
0 2 1
3 −1 2 6
4 0 1
Now, to find the cofactors, combine the minors with

checkerboard pattern of sign.
Definition (Determinant of nxn matrix)
If A is a square matrix of order n  2, then the determinant of A is
the sum of the entries in the first row of A multiplied by their
respective cofactors. That is,
*when we use this definition, we are evaluating a determinant by cofactor

expansion along the 1st row.
Example
[ ]
0 2 1
Find the determinant of 𝐴= 3 −1 2
4 0 1
Although the determinant is defined as an expansion by the cofactors in the 1st

row, it can be shown that the determinant can be evaluated by expanding in
any row or column,
2nd row expansion

1st column expansion
*The row (or column) containing the most zeros is usually the
best choice for expansion by cofactors.
Example
Compute the determinant of the following matrix using the

cofactor expansion.
 2 3 0 1
5 4 2 0 Which row/ column
A  suitable to choose?
 1 1 0 3
 
 2 1 0 0
Choose 3rd column since

it has only one nonzero
entry
1.7 The Determinant of a Matrix (cont.)
Exercises (Determinant):
1. Compute the determinant of the matrix.
 3 2 1  1 4 2  1 2 1
     
( i) A 4 5 6 ( ii ) B   3 2 0 ( iii ) C  2 2 4
 2 3 1   1 4 3  1 3 3 
   
1 
2 1 5 
x y 1    0.4 0.4 0.3 
  1  
( iv ) D   2 2 1 ( v ) E   4  
4  ( vi ) F   0.2 0.2 0.2 
4
1 5 1    0.3 0.2 0.2 
 
3 2 2 
 
4 3 2 5 0 2 4 5   1 2 7 9
     
1 6 1 2  3 0 3 6  3 4 5 5
( vii ) G   ( viii )H   ( ix ) I  
 3 2 4 5 2 4 5 7 3 6 1 1
     
 6 1 3 2   5 1 3 1   4 5 3 2 
w x y z 
 
21 15 24 30 
( x ) J 
 10 24 32 18 
 
 40 22 32 35 
2. Find the determinants of matrices in Question 1 by using the method of

expansion by cofactors.
(a) 2rd row
(b) 3nd column
Exercises (Determinant) - Answer:
1. ( i )  75 ( ii )  58 ( iii ) 2
( iv )  7 x  3 y  8 ( v )  43.5 ( vi ) 0.002
( vii )  1098 ( viii ) 585 ( ix ) 136
( x ) 65644w  62256 x  12294 y  24672 z
2. Same answer as in Question 1.

Definition (Triangular Matrices)
An m x n matrix is an upper triangular if aij = 0, for all i > j, and is

lower triangular if aij = 0, for all i < j.
A square matrix is a diagonal matrix if

aij = 0, for all i  j.
Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix

Examples.
Upper triangular matrices:
Lower triangular matrices are:

Theorem
The determinant of a triangular matrix is the product of the entries on
its main diagonal. Specifically, if A = [aij] is nxn, then
det A  a11a22 ... ann
Example
To compute the determinant of
det A = 1(4)(1) = 4
1 1 3 
A  0 4 2 
0 0 1 
Exercises (Triangular Matrix):
Find the determinant of the triangular matrix.

5 3 0 
 
i. A   0 1 2 
0 0 8 
 
Answer:
4 0 0 0 i.-40
 
 1 1
0 0
ii.-12
ii. B  2  iii.7
3 5 3 0
 
 8 7 0 2 
7 8 4 3 1
 
iii. 0 1 5 3 13 
 4 
C 
0 0 2 5 4
 
0 0 0 1 1 
 
0 0 0 0 2 
Theorem (Conditions that Yield a Zero Determinant)
Let A is a square matrix and one of the following conditions is true, then
det(A) = 0.
1. An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

2. Two rows (or columns) are equal.
3. One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or column)
Example.
The first row The first & third The 3rd column is a multiple
has all zeros row are the same of the first column
1.7.1 Properties of Determinant
Theorem (Determinant of matrix product)
If A & B are square matrices of order n, then
det(AB) = det(A). det(B)
Theorem (Determinant of a Scalar Multiple of a Matrix)

If A is an nxn matrix and k is a scalar, then the determinant of kA
is given by
det (kA) = kn det A.
1.7.2 Properties of Determinant (cont.)
Theorem (Determinant of a Transpose)
If A is a square matrix , then
det (A) = det (AT)
Example.
Given . Show that | A | = | AT |.
Answer: det(A) = det(AT) = -6

1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix
Definition (Inverse/ invertible)
An matrix A is invertible (or nonsingular) if there exists an matrix
B such that
where is the identity matrix of order n. The matrix B is called the

inverse of A. A matrix that does not have an inverse is called
noninvertible (or singular).
- Non-square matrices
do not have inverses.
- Not all square matrix
does have an inverse.
Example
 2 5  3 5
If A    , then A '    is an inverse of A since
 1 3  1 2 
1 0  1 0 
AA’=   and A’A=  
 0 1   0 1 
Theorem (Uniqueness of Inverse Matrix)
If A is invertible matrix, then its inverse is unique. The inverse of A is
denoted by
NOTE:
- Matrix A will have an inverse if
and only if its determinant is
not equal to zero.
- Matrix A will have an inverse if
and only if it is row equivalent
to the identity matrix
Example
Determine whether and are invertible.
Solution
We have , so A is invertible
On the other hand, so B is not invertible.
OR
Since the RREF of matrix A is the identity matrix, A is invertible .

Since the RREF of matrix B is not the identity matrix, B is not invertible .
1.8 The Inverse of a Matrix (cont.)
Theorem
If A 
 a b  , then A is invertible if
  ad  bc  0 , in which
c d 
case 1 1  d . b 
A 
ad  bc  c a 
If
ad  bc  0 , then A is not invertible.
Examples
1 2 
Find the inverses of A    .
3 4 
 2 1 
1  4 2  3 
A1   1
2  3 1    
2 2
Theorem (Adjoint/Adjugate Method)
Let A be an invertible nxn matrix. Then

1 1
A  adj A
det A
where adj A is the adjoint (or adjugate) of A.
The matrix,  C11 C21 ... Cn1 

C C22 ... Cn 2 
[C ji ]  [Cij ]   12
T
 : : : : 
 
C1n C2 n ... Cnn 
is called the adjoint of A, denoted by adj A.

Example
Use the adjoint method to compute the inverse of
1 2 1
A   2 2 4 
1 3 3
Solution:
From the computation, det A = -2. Now, the nine cofactors will be,
2 4 2 4 2 2
C11    18 C12    10 C13   4
3 3 1 3 1 3
1 1 1 2
2 1 C22    2 C23    1
C21   3 1 3 1 3
3 3
1 1 1 2
2 1 C32    6 C33    2
C31    10 2 4 2 2
2 4
The adjoint is the transpose of the matrix cofactors – namely,
T
 18 10 4   18 3 10 
adjA   3 2 1   10 2 6 
 10 6 2   4 1 2 
Then,
 3 
 9  5 
1  18 3 10  2
1
A  adjA   1  10 2 6   
det A   5 1 3
2 
 
 4 1 2  1
 2 1
 2 
Theorem (Gauss-Jordan Method)
Let A be a square matrix. If a sequence of elementary row
operations reduces A to I, then the same sequence of elementary
row operations transforms I into A-1.
Example
Find the inverse of
1 2 1
A   2 2 4 
1 3 3
by using the Gauss Jordan method.

Solution.
1 2 1 1 0 0 1 2 1 1 0 0
R2 – 2R1
[A | I]  2 2 4 0 1 0 0 2 6 2 1 0
1 3 3 0 0 1 R3 – R 1 0 1 2 1 0 1
1 2 1 1 0 0 R3 + 2R2 1 0 3 3 0 2
R2  R3 0 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 2 1 0 1
R1 -2R2
0 2 6 2 1 0 0 0 2 4 1 2
R3 /3 1 0 3 3 0 2 1 0 0 9 3 / 2 5
R2 + 2R3
0 1 2 1 0 1 0 1 0 5 1 3
R1 – 3R3
0 0 1 2 1/ 2 1 0 0 1 2 1/ 2 1
 9 3 / 2 5
Therefore,
A1   5 1 3 
 2 1/ 2 1 
Theorem (Properties of Inverse Matrices)
If A is an invertible matrix, k is a positive integer, and c is a nonzero

scalar, then A-1, Ak , cA and AT are invertible and the following are
true.
1. ( A1 ) 1  A
2.
3. 1 1
1
(cA)  A
c
4.
Example.
Given .
Compute A-2 in two different ways and show that the results are equal.
Solution:
1st way – find A2 and then (A2)-1 :
2nd way – find A-1 and then (A-1)2 : Note that each
method
produces the
 same result.
Theorem (The Inverse of a Product)
If A and B are invertible matrices of size n, then AB is invertible and

(AB)-1 = B-1 A-1
Note:
Previous theorem can be generalized to products of finitely many
invertible matrices:
If A1 , A2 ,..., An are invertible matrices of the same size, then
A1 , A2 ,..., An is invertible and
( A1 A2 ... An ) 1  An1... A21 A11
Example
Suppose that B is an invertible matrix and A is any matrix with AB = BA. Show
that A and B-1 commute.
Solution:
( To show AB-1 = B-1A )
From hypothesis  AB = BA.

Multiply both sides with B-1.
Then,
(AB)B-1 = (BA) B-1
A(B B-1) = B (A B-1)
A I = B A B-1
B-1 A = B-1 B A B-1
B-1 A = A B-1 .
Therefore,
A and B-1 commute.
Theorem (The Fundamental of Invertible Matrices)
Let A be an n  n matrix. The following statements are equivalent:
a. A is invertible.
b. Ax =b has a unique solution for every b in Rn.
c. Ax =0 has only the trivial solution.
d. The reduced row echelon form of A is In.
Detailed discussion about this theorem in Chapter 2.

Exercises (Inverse of a Matrix):
1. Determine whether the following matrix is invertible.

 3 5 2 2 3 1
3 1    
( i ) A   ( ii ) B   2 4 1 ( iii ) C   0 5 3
 2 2
 3 0 6   4 6 2 
  
5 3 0 6 4 7 9 1 11 3 8 13 
     
4 6 4 12 6 2 7 0 0 0 11  7
( iv ) D    ( v )E  ( vi ) F   
0 2 3 4  3 6 3 3   0 0 24 9 
     
0 1 2 2  0 7 4 1  0 0 0 15 
2. Determine the inverse of the following matrix by using:

(a) The adjoint Method
(b) The Gauss Jordan Method
1 0 3  7 2 1 1 2 3 
     
( i ) A  0 1 2  ( ii ) B   0 31  ( iii ) C  0 1 4 
2 1 0   3 4
2  5 6 0 
    
 1 2 0 1
1 3 0 1 1 1   
    3 2 1 0
( iv ) D   2 2 1  ( v ) E  1 1 1  ( vi ) F   
1 0 2 1 
 4 1 1 1 2 4   
    0 3 1 2
 
0 1 0 3
 
1 2 3 1
( vii ) G   
0 0 2 2 
 
 1 2 4 1 
3. Find the value(s) of k such that A has no inverse (singular).

1 0 3  1 k 2 
k  1 3     
( i) A   ( ii ) B   2 1 0  ( iii ) C   2 0 k 
 2 k  2
4 2 k  3 1 4 
  
Exercises (Inverse of a Matrix)- Answer:
1. ( i ) de t A  6  0.Inve rtible .( ii ) de t B  3  0.Inve rtible .

( iii ) de t C  0.Not Inve rtible .( iv ) de t D  0. NotInve rtible .
( v ) de t E  1344  0.Inve rtible . ( vi ) de t F  0. Not Inve rtible .
 1 3 3 
 2 4 4 
  2 8 5   24 18 5
2. ( i) A 1
  1 
3 1 1   1 
  ( ii ) B   3 11 7  ( iii ) C   20 15 4 

2 2
   9 34 21   5 4 1 
  
 1 
1

1
 2 4 4 
 9 7 13 17 
1 3 3 2 6 2   
1  1  1  12 2 10 8 
( iv ) D 1    2 1 1 ( v ) 1
E   3 3 0  ( vi ) F 1  
5 6 22  5 1 17 7 
 6 13 8  1 3 2   
  
 2 4 2 6 
 7 
2 3 2 4
 
 1 3 3 3 
( vii ) G 1  2
 
0 1 0 1
 1 
0 1  1
 2 
4
3. ( i) k  1, 4 ( ii ) k  24 ( iii ) k   ,  1
3
1.9 Elementary Matrices
Definition (Elementary Matrix)
An nxn matrix is called elementary matrix if it can be obtained from the

identity matrix In by single elementary row operation.
Examples
Let 1 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 
3 0 0  0 1 0 0  E3  
E1   E2   and
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0
     
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 2 0 1
3R2 R1  R3 R4 – 2R2
1.9 Elementary Matrices (cont.)
Example.
Which of the following matrices are elementary? For those that are, describe the
corresponding elementary row operation.
a.
Elementary - ERO 3R2
b.
Not Elementary since not square matrix
c.
Elementary - ERO R2 + 2R1
d. Not Elementary since two ERO - 2R2 & -1R3

Exercises:
Determine whether the matrix is elementary. If it is, state the elementary row
operation (ERO) used to produce it.
a.
a. Elementary – ERO 2R2
b. Not elementary – two ERO
c. Elementary – ERO R3 + 5R1
b.
d. Not elementary – two ERO
c.
d.
Exercises:
Let A, B, C be
Find,
i.Elementary matrix E such that EA = B

ii.Elementary matrix E such that EA = C
iii.Elementary matrix E such that EB = A

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SMA3013 LINEAR

It is standard mathematical convention to represent matrices in any

1.An uppercase letter such as

,are called entries/elements of a matrix.

1. row matrix- a matrix

3. Square matrix – no. of rows = no. of column

5. Identity matrix – a square matrix in which the main

6. Scalar matrix – a diagonal matrix whose the

Definition (Equality of Matrices)

1.3.1 Matrix Addition

Definition (Matrix Addition)

The sum of two matrices of different sizes is undefined.

Definition (Scalar Multiplication)

Note (Matrix Subtraction):

Definition (Matrix Multiplication)

Continuing this pattern produced the following results.

If A is a square matrix and r , s are nonnegative integers, then

Thus, A is symmetric but B is not symmetric.

Compute the indicated matrices(if possible).

(a)Find (i) c11 (ii) c21 , where C = BT B.

4. Solve for x, y and z in the matrix equation

Determine whether A+B is commutative .

Thus, A+B=B+A. Therefore, A+B is commutative.

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Note: Multiplication is not commutative. Therefore, it is not necessary AB = BA.

1.4.2 Properties of Matrix Multiplication

Show that the matrix product is not commutative (AB  BA)

1.4.1 Properties of Matrix Addition & scalar Multiplication

Determine whether the matrix product is associative.

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices

1.4.3 Properties of Zero Matrices (cont.)

1.4.4 Properties of Transposes

Definition (Elementary Row Operations)

Notations for the three elementary row operations:

The process of applying elementary row operations to bring a matrix

a. Interchange the first and second row.

b. Multiply the third row by ½ .

Original matrix notation New row equivalent matrix

Matrices A and B are row equivalent if there is a sequence of

are row equivalent.

1. Determine whether the matrix is in REF or RREF or neither.

4. Reduce the following matrices into RREF.

(v) neither (vi) REF and RREF

4. (i) (ii) (iii)

Definition ( Determinant of a 2x2 matrix)

Minors and Cofactors of a Square Matrix

For example, if A is a 3x3 matrix,

then the minors and cofactors of and are as follows.

Minor of : Delete row 2 and column 2

Sign Pattern for Cofactors:

Now, to find the cofactors, combine the minors with

*when we use this definition, we are evaluating a determinant by cofactor

Although the determinant is defined as an expansion by the cofactors in the 1st

2nd row expansion

1st column expansion

Compute the determinant of the following matrix using the

Choose 3rd column since

2. Find the determinants of matrices in Question 1 by using the method of

2. Same answer as in Question 1.

An m x n matrix is an upper triangular if aij = 0, for all i > j, and is

A square matrix is a diagonal matrix if

Upper triangular matrix Lower triangular matrix